用户:Zanhsieh/沙盒4
- Rudder, stern-mounted and vertical axial:According to the scholars Zhang Zunyan and Vassilios Christides, there is literary evidence to suggest that the axial stern rudder existed in China since the 1st century BC,[1] while Gang Deng asserts the first reference was made in the Huainanzi of the 2nd century BC,[2] and K.S. Tom says the first clear reference dates to the 5th century AD.[3] However, K.S. Tom points to the fact that all Chinese pottery models of ships before this Guangzhou tomb model show steering oars instead of a rudder, which he states is strong evidence for the rudder's invention only by the 1st century AD.[4] Jacques Gernet states that while the Chinese had invented the rudder in the 1st century AD, it was not completely fixed to the sternpost of Chinese ships until the end of the 4th century.[5] The bulkhead ship design of the junk, which appeared roughly the same time as the rudder, provided the essential vertical components for the hinged axial rudder.[6] Deng points out that an Eastern Han (25–220) model distinctly shows a rudder located in its own separate cabin, suggesting that helmsmanship had already become an established profession.[2] Following the invention of the balanced rudder pivoted on an axis, Tom and Deng state that the Chinese then innovated the fenestrated rudder by the Song Dynasty (960–1279), with deliberate puncturing and boring out of holes in shapes such as diamonds, which, according to Tom, made the rudder "easier to steer, reduced turbulence drag, did not affect efficiency and was hydrodynamically sound."[7][2]
- 船尾安装、垂直为轴的舵:将橹定义为舵的学者劳伦斯·V·莫特表明，古埃及人开始使用船尾安装的舵可以追溯到第六王朝（前2350-前2200年）。[8]莫特表示，船尾装舵的方式在阿拉伯、中国、以及欧洲世界彼此间相异，导致他怀疑中国那种以窝钳或滑轮组附着（相对于欧洲约于1180年所发明 枢钮）方式橹的源流。[8][9]对于莫特把橹定义为舵的一种，学者李约瑟、理查·德勒费弗尔·德诺蒂斯（Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes）、K·S·汤姆、曾炽杰、S·A·M·艾兹赫德、保罗·约翰史通（Paul Johnstone）和Sean McGrail等皆表示，橹不是一种舵；橹虽有能力直接介入船只航行操作（这限制了其遂行任何远洋航行的潜在可能），不过它更适合小型船舶在狭窄、湍急的水域进行运输;舵不直接干预船只航行操作，并且船只舵手仅需少少的精力便能操作，更能满足大型船舶远洋旅行的需求，而且它最早在中国出现。[10][11][3][12][9]利欧·布拉克（Leo Block）在写古地中海世界（特别是在前1550-前300年有关的腓尼基人的那部分）提到：“单程航行倾向将船体转向顺流或者逆流的方向，而梢公需控舵才能保持直线前进。当时采用橹是因为人们尚未发明舵。随着单程航行，梢公需要频繁地移动橹以保持船直线前进；这种方式减缓了船体行进的速度，因为橹修正行进路线的方式类似于采刹车。”[13]许多最古老陶瓷制、不带橹的船后附舵船舶雕塑模型，可追溯到整个东汉西汉（前202年-后220年）时期。[14][15][3][2]根据学者张尊严（音译）和瓦西利奥斯·克里斯提帝斯（Vassilios Christides）的研究，有文学上证据表明是定轴尾舵自前1世纪在中国就已存在，[16]
而邓刚称，第一次提到有人在 淮南子 的公元前二世纪，[17]汤姆说，首次明确提到追溯至公元5世纪。[3]然而，美国堪萨斯汤姆指出了事实，即所有中国陶器型号的船只在此之前广州坟墓模特表演，而不是转向舵桨，他的国家是有力的证据为舵的发明，只有在公元1世纪。[18]雅克Gernet国家，虽然中国已经发明了舵，在公元1世纪，这不是完全固定的sternpost的中国船舶，直到结束的第四世纪。[19]舱壁的船舶设计的 垃圾,这似乎大致相同的时间为舵，提供必要的垂直分量的铰链轴舵。 [20]邓小平指出，一东汉（25-220）模型显示出明显舵设在其自己单独的小屋，这表明helmsmanship已经成为一个既定的职业。引用错误：<ref>标签有冲突或无效的属性继发明的平衡舵无所不能轴上，汤姆和邓小平指出，中国再创新了孔的舵由宋（960-1279），与蓄意穿刺而枯燥出孔形状，如钻石，其中，根据汤姆，使舵“更容易驾驭，减少动荡拖累，不影响工作效率，是流体力学的声音。”[7] [2]
- Steel made from cast iron through oxygenation: The Chinese, who had been producing cast iron from the late Spring and Autumn Period (722–481 BC), produced steel by the 2nd century BC through a process of decarburization, i.e. using bellows to pump large amounts of oxygen on to molten cast iron.[21] This was first described in the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) book Huainanzi, compiled by scholars under Prince Liu An (179–122 BC).[22] The Chinese called this technique "the hundred refinings method," since the process was repeated over and over to incrementally strengthen the steel.[22] The back of swords were often made of more elastic wrought iron while the cutting edge of the blade itself was made of strong steel.[22] For steel, they used both quenching (i.e. rapid cooling) and tempering (i.e. slow cooling) methods of heat treatment.[22] Much later, the American inventor William Kelly (1811–1888) brought four Chinese metallurgists to Eddyville, Kentucky in 1845, whose expertise in steelmaking influenced his ideas about air injection to reduce carbon content of iron; his invention anticipated the Bessemer process of Henry Bessemer (1813–1898).[23]
- 钢铸铁制成，通过氧:的中国，谁制造了铸铁从晚春秋（公元前722-481 ），产生 钢铁由公元前2世纪经历一个过程的脱碳，即使用波纹管泵大量的氧气到熔融铸铁。[24]这是首次描述在汉（公元前202年，公元220年）书 淮南子,学者编制下王子[ [刘安]]（179-122年）。[22]这种技术的中文名为“百refinings法”，因为这个过程被重复一遍遍地逐步加强的钢材。[22]背面的刀剑往往使更多的弹性 锻铁，而尖端的刀片本身是用坚固钢板。[22]钢铁，他们同时使用解渴荷兰国际集团（即快速冷却）和锻炼（即缓慢冷却）方法热处理。[22]很久以后，在美国发明 威廉凯利（1811年至1888年）所带来的四中国冶金为 埃迪维尔，肯塔基州 1845年，她的专长在炼钢影响了他的想法，以减少对空气注入碳含量的铁，他的发明预期的贝西默进程的亨利贝西默（1813 - 1898年）。[23]
马镫[编辑]
- Stirrup: There are authors who point out that it is unclear whether the stirrup was invented by northern nomads or the sedentary Chinese.[25] Liu Han (1961) credited the invention of the stirrup to nomadic invaders of northern China.[26] Archaeologial evidence shows that horse riders in India had a small loop for a single toe to be inserted by roughly the 1st century AD.[27] However, the first true depiction of the stirrup is featured on a Jin Dynasty (265–420) Chinese tomb figurine dated 302 AD, yet this was a single stirrup and was perhaps used only for initially mounting the horse.[28] It should be noted that the latter was found in Changsha, Hunan, far from the northern border.[29] The first validated depiction of a rider with a pair of saddle stirrups for both feet comes from a Jin Chinese tomb figurine dated 322.[28] The first actual specimens of stirrups comes from a Chinese tomb in southern Manchuria that is dated 415.[28] The stirrup was not widely used by Chinese cavalry until the 5th century.[27][30] By the 6th century, the use of the stirrup had spread as far west as the Byzantine Empire, where both the stirrup and Celtic horseshoe were adopted.[27]
刘晗（1961）计入该发明的马镫来中国北方游牧民族的入侵。[32] Archaeologial证据表明，骑马在印度有一个小环为一个单一的脚趾被插入了大约公元1世纪。[27]但是，第一个真正的描写箍筋为特色的晋（265-420）中墓俑公元302日，不过，这是一个单一的马镫他可能最初只用于安装马。[28]应该指出的是，后者是发现在长沙，湖南，远从北部边境。[33]的第一套有效描写一对骑手与马镫的马鞍双脚来自一个墓俑金中日322。 [28]的第一个实际标本箍筋来自一个中国墓在南满的发布日期为 415。[28]马蹬并没有被广泛使用中国骑兵直到公元5世纪。[27] [34]到6世纪，马镫的使用已经扩散的最西部的拜占庭帝国，其中两个马镫和凯尔特人 马蹄获得通过。[27]
- Tomb, structural design imitating real life residences: The ancient Chinese built imperial tombs which by structural design imitated the actual living spaces and residences of the deceased tomb occupants when they were alive, a representation of their earthly life which would continue to serve them in the afterlife. For example, Fu Xinian writes that the tomb of Tang Dynasty (618–907) crown prince Li Chongrun (682–701) at the Qianling Mausoleum had a specific number and layout of "underground chambers, ventilation shafts, compartments, and air wells" which would have corresponded to the exact number and layout of "courtyards, main halls, rooms, and corridors" of his real palatial residence at Chang'an.[35]
- 墓，结构设计模仿现实生活中，住宅:古代帝王陵墓的建造中的结构设计模仿实际的生活空间和住宅死者的坟墓占用时，他们还活着，一个代表性的人间生活将继续为他们在来世。例如，傅希鲶写道，墓大唐（618-907）皇太子黎充闰（682-701）在乾陵陵园有一个具体的数量和布局“地下洞室，通风井，车厢，空井“，将有相对应的确切数量和布局的”院落，大殿，房间和走廊“他真正的宫殿居住在长安。[36]
往复锤[编辑]
- Trip hammer: The ancient Chinese used pestle and mortar to pound and decorticate grain, which was superseded by the treadle-operated tilt hammer (employing a simple lever and fulcrum) perhaps during the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BC) but first described in a Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) dictionary of 40 BC and soon after by Yang Xiong (53 BC–18 AD) in his Fangyan dictionary written in 15 BC; the next stage in this evolution of grain-pounding devices was to apply hydraulic power, which the author Huan Tan (43 BC–28 AD) mentioned in his Xinlun of 20 AD, although he also described trip hammers powered by the labor of horses, oxen, donkeys, and mules.[37] After Huan Tan's book was written, numerous references to trip hammers powered by waterwheels were made in subsequent Chinese dynasties and in Medieval Europe by the 12th century.[38] However, trip hammers were also attested by both literary (Pliny, Natural History 18.97) and archaeological evidence in fairly widespread use in the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD.[39][40]
- 往复锤:古人最早利用杵臼碎谷去糠，后来大约周朝（前1122-前256年）期间被一种简单的杠杆和支点、脚踏操作的轮锤机构所取代。虽是如此，不过它首次见诸描述是在成书于汉朝（前202-220年）公元前40年的辞典，以及不久之后扬雄（前53-18年）写于前15年的《方言》一书中。
后不久，由扬雄（前53-18年）在他的 方岩 字典写在公元前15年，下一次在这个演化阶段粮食冲击装置是适用于 液压动力，它的作者桓塌嗯（公元前43年-28年）中提到他的 新纶 20广告，尽管他还介绍了锤动力之旅，由劳动马，牛，驴和骡子。[41]后还她嗯的书是写，多次提到行程锤子本站由水车学生发了言在随后的中国朝代，在中世纪欧洲的12世纪。[42]不过，行程也证明了锤子的文学（普林尼 自然历史 18.97）和考古证据相当普遍使用的罗马帝国由公元1世纪。[43] [44]
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数学[编辑]
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- ^ Christides (1996), 66–67.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Deng (1997), 42.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 引用错误：没有为名为
tom 1989 103的参考文献提供内容 - ^ Tom (1989), 103–104.
- ^ Gernet (1996), 378.
- ^ 引用错误：没有为名为
needham volume 4 part 3 391的参考文献提供内容 - ^ 7.0 7.1 Tom (1989), 104. 引用错误：带有name属性“tom 1989 104”的
<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次 - ^ 8.0 8.1 Mott（1991），2-3，92，84，95F
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Adshead (2000), 156.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 3, 627–628.
- ^ Chung (2005), 152.
- ^ Johnstone & McGrail (1988), 191.
- ^ Block (2003), 8–9.
- ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 3, 649–650.
- ^ Fairbank (2006), 192.
- ^ Christides（1996），66-67。
- ^ 引用错误：没有为名为
deng和KS 1997 42的参考文献提供内容 - ^ 汤姆（1989）， 103-104。
- ^ Gernet（1996年），378。
- ^ 引用错误：没有为名为
needham第4卷第3部分391的参考文献提供内容 - ^ Temple (1986), 49–50.
- ^ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 Temple (1986), 50. 引用错误：带有name属性“temple 1986 50”的
<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次 - ^ 23.0 23.1 Temple (1986), 49. 引用错误：带有name属性“temple 1986 49”的
<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次 - ^ 寺（1986），49-50。
- ^ Dien (1986), 33–56.
- ^ Dien (1981), 5–66.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 Addington (1990), 45. 引用错误：带有name属性“addington 45”的
<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次 - ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 Graff (2002), 42. 引用错误：带有name属性“graff 2002 42”的
<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次 - ^ Temple (1986), 89.
- ^ Hobson (2004), 103.
- ^ Dien (1986), 33–56.
- ^ 演（1981），5-66 。
- ^ 寺（1986年），89。
- ^ 霍布森（2004），103。
- ^ Fu (2002), 108.
- ^ 富（2002），108。
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 183–184, 390–392.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 379, 392–395.
- ^ Wilson (2002), 1–32.
- ^ Burnham (1997) 333–335.
- ^ 李约瑟，第4卷，第2，183-184，390-392。
- ^ 李约瑟，第4卷，第2部分，379，392-395。
- ^ 威尔逊（2002），1-32。
- ^ 伯纳姆（1997）333-335。