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草稿:电子游戏与暴力

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维基百科，自由的百科全书

电子游戏自诞生以来，就常被批评含有暴力元素。许多政客、家长及活动家宣称电子游戏与暴力行为有联系，特别是与青少年的暴力行为有联系。美国心理学会认为尽管带有暴力元素的电子游戏与冒犯性的行为有关，但将暴力行为都归咎于带有暴力元素的电子游戏是“不科学的说法”[1][2]。

背景[编辑]

自20世纪90年代末以来，因为人们认为犯罪嫌疑人可能有玩暴力电子游戏的历史，一些可能与游戏有关的暴力事件被大肆宣传。1999年的科倫拜校園事件造成了道德恐慌，使得学者们开始研究带有暴力元素的电子游戏是否会影响现实中的行为[3][页码请求]。一些研究发现游玩有暴力元素的电子游戏会增加或减少亲社会行为（英语：prosocial behavior），或者与其增减有相关性[4][5]，其他研究则认为带有暴力元素的电子游戏根本就没有这样的功能[6]。2005年，美国娱乐软件协会主席在接受公共广播电视公司采访时否认带有暴力元素的电子游戏会导致反社会行为，他在采访中说：“坦率地说，这是不了解这个行业的人在过分夸大其词”[7][與來源不符]。此外，还有一些人认为电子游戏行业成了现实中各类社会问题的替罪羊[8][9][10]，玩电子游戏本身对青少年有积极的影响[11][12]。

公众的一种主要担忧是，由于电子游戏受众中有很大一部分是年轻人，因此特别容易受到电子游戏特别是其中的暴力元素的影响[7]。2022年进行的一项大规模研究发现至少有1/4的玩家年龄介乎10岁和20岁间[13]，此外一项针对12至17岁间，1102位青少年的研究发现，1102人中有97%在访谈的前一天玩过电子游戏，这97%的人群中，又有14%的女孩和50%的男孩喜欢玩“M”（包含适合17岁以上玩家的内容）或“AO”（内容只适合18岁以上的成人）评级的游戏，而有25%的家长在购买游戏前根本不会查看评级[14]。

历史[编辑]

电子游戏诞生前[编辑]

在历史上，人们曾对漫畫雜誌抱有与电子游戏类似的道德恐慌。1950年代，美国进入漫畫黃金時代，随着产业的发展，一些艺术家和出版商开始出版、发行更频繁地描绘暴力和其他擦边内容的漫画。1954年，精神病学家弗雷德里克·魏特汉出版了《纯真的诱惑（英语：Seduction of the Innocent）》一书，宣称漫画中的暴力情节会诱导青少年去模仿，从而引发犯罪行为。即便魏特汉的一些说法后来被发现并不严谨，这本书还是引起了道德恐慌，迫使漫画行业规范作品。同年，漫画行业组建了漫画准则管理局，严格规范内容，通过自我审查消除了大部分暴力和其他承认内容。其后，主流漫画业逐渐衰落，而成人漫画的地下市场则逐渐形成。直到接近20年后，漫画行业才从漫画监管局的规定中恢复过来，但不再那么严格地遵守漫画准则管理局的要求。进入千禧年后，人们普遍不再考虑漫画准则管理局的要求[15]。也因此，人们常把对漫画杂志的恐慌和对游戏的恐慌相提并论。而游戏开发商也会尽量避免自我审查，以免影响销量[16][17]。

彈珠台和漫画杂志的境遇相似，在20世纪50、60年代的美国，叛逆的青少年经常会在弹珠台旁闲逛，有代沟的老一辈美国人无法理解这些青少年，因此对这些青年人感到恐慌。在一些人看来，弹珠台似乎是一种赌博（这导致弹珠台上往往贴有“仅供娱乐”的标签），而信奉宗教的人更担心弹球是“魔鬼的工具”。由于民众对彈珠台产生了道德恐慌，许多城市不得不限制甚至禁止弹珠台，不过这些禁令大都只维持到了70年代初。比如，纽约在1976年前一直禁止人们玩彈珠台[18]，芝加哥的禁令则一直维持到了1977年[19]。随着电子游戏的出现，叛逆的青少年们将目光从弹珠台上转移到了电子游戏上，弹珠台的禁令也正是在电子游戏出现后没多久后被纷纷解除，但人们对弹珠台的担忧也部分转移到了电子游戏上[20]。

1970年代–1980年代[编辑]

在《乓》火遍街机游戏界后，After Pong exploded onto the arcade game market, arcade game manufacturers were aware of the attention that video games were getting and tried to position games as entertainment aimed at adults, selling units preferably to bars and lounges.[20] This gave them more leeway with content, but still which drew criticism from some. Two arcade games had already drawn attention for amoral content prior to 1976. Atari's Gotcha in 1973, a maze game, initially shipped with two joystick units that were covered in pink domes as to represent women's breasts, but which were removed in later makes. The 1975 Shark Jaws, also by Atari, was an unlicensed adaption of the film Jaws and attempted to play on the film's violent context, though here, the player was hunted by the shark.[20] As arcade games spread into more locations, the ease for children to access the games also elevated concerns about their potential impacts.[20]

The 1976 arcade game Death Race is considered the first game to be targeted for its violent content. The game, like Shark Jaws, was an unlicensed adaption of the 1975 film Death Race 2000, a violent film centered on driving. Within the game, the player was challenged to drive a car and run over simulated gremlins scoring points for doing so. Besides the game's simulated content, the game cabinet was also adorned with imagery of death.[20] The game caught the attention of an Associated Press writer, Wendy Walker, who had contacted the game's manufacturer, Exidy, with her concerns that the game was excessively violent.[21] Walker's concerns spread through other media organizations, including the National Safety Council, who accused the game of glorifying the act of running people over when at the time they were trying to educate drivers about safe driving practices. While some arcades subsequently returned the Death Race machines due to this panic, sales of the game continued to grow due to the media coverage.[22] It was recognized that many other competing arcade games at the time, like Cops 'n' Robbers, Tank 8, and Jet Fighter, all games equally about violent actions, saw little complaint. Nolan Bushnell of Atari said that "We Atari had an internal rule that we wouldn't allow violence against people. You could blow up a tank or you could blow up a flying saucer, but you couldn't blow up people. We felt that that was not good form, and we adhered to that all during my tenure."[20]

United States Surgeon General C. Everett Koop was one of the first to raise concerns about the potential connection of video games to youth behavior. In 1982, Koop stated as a personal observation that "more and more people are beginning to understand" the connection between video games and mental and physical health effects on youth, though that at that time, there was not sufficient evidence to make any conclusion.[23][24]

1990年代[编辑]

《真人快打》及1993年美國國會電子遊戲聽證會[编辑]

参见：真人快打相關爭議

1992年发售的街机格斗游戏《真人快打》包含有大量血腥场面，游戏中还出现了“必杀技（英语：Fatality (Mortal Kombat)）”的玩法，即终结敌人时使用的标志性、更为血腥的攻击方式。《真人快打》走红后，业界涌现了一批带有暴力元素的电子游戏，不过，这些游戏是街机独占式的游戏，因此一般会被与面向青少年的非暴力游戏区分开来[25][26]。然而，家用游戏机厂商们在《真人快打》走红后都想移植该款作品到自家主机上，特别是当时正处在游戏机大战（英语：console war）中，争夺美国市场的世嘉和任天堂两家[27]。世嘉移植版的《真人快打》保留了街机版的所有血腥场面（但需要使用作弊码才能激活），任天堂版则去掉了大部分血腥场面，红色的血液也被灰色的“汗液”代替。然而，世嘉版的销量最终远超任天堂版[26]。

《真人快打》、《午夜陷阱》和《致命执法者（英语：Lethal Enforcers）》三款游戏的爆火引来了美国参议员喬·李伯曼和赫伯·科爾（英语：Herb Kohl）二人的注意。1993-1994年间，二人主持了两场国会听证会，与业界、电子游戏公司代表和相关群体探讨电子游戏中的暴力问题[26]。世嘉及任天堂等电子游戏公司皆被批评缺乏完善的电子游戏分级制度，利伯曼威胁说如果电子游戏公司不自行整改，国会将采取行动规范行业[28]。在第二次听证会中，世嘉、任天堂和其他厂商就成立娛樂軟件分級委員會进行自愿评级达成了一致，该委员会最终于1994年落地[29][30]。这两场听证会还促使业界成立了负责管理娛樂軟件分級委員會的互动数字软件协会，后改称娱乐软件协会[30][31]。

杰克·汤普森[编辑]

主条目：杰克·汤普森 § 电子游戏官司

已被除牌的美国律师杰克·汤普森批评说一些电子游戏含有淫秽内容，并组织活动攻击开发商和发售商。他认为，带有暴力元素的电子游戏是青少年排练暴力事件计划的“杀人模拟器”，这些游戏和一些校园惨案之间的联系密不可分。

科倫拜校園事件[编辑]

1999年4月20日，埃里克·哈里斯和迪倫·克萊伯德在美国科罗拉多州杰斐逊县哥伦拜恩高中枪杀13人，随后自杀。两名行凶者后被发现是包括《毀滅戰士》在内一批带有暴力元素的电子游戏的忠实粉丝。由于是次事件导致公众认为电子游戏与枪击案有关联，国会举行了听证会，比尔·克林顿总统下令调查校园枪击案以及电子游戏是如何向青少年销售的[32]。2004年，美国特勤局和美國教育部联合发布的报告中发现，12%的校园枪击案犯罪者对电子游戏感兴趣[32][33]。

哥伦拜恩枪击案发生后，媒体开始重审之前发生的枪击案，发现1998年韦斯特赛德中学枪击案（英语：1998 Westside Middle School shooting）的两名主谋也喜欢玩各种第一人称射击游戏，还曾一起玩《黃金眼007》[34][35]。

2000年代[编辑]

《侠盗猎车手III》及相关诉讼[编辑]

2001年，Rockstar Games在PlayStation 2平台上发售了《俠盜獵車手III》，该款游戏允许玩家控制主人公克劳德在一座现代都市中进行城市黑社会犯罪活动。该款游戏还是第一批開放世界游戏，允许玩家自由控制完成任务的方式，玩家可以在游戏中斗殴、打枪或是飙车。游戏发售后大卖，在6个月内售出200万份[36]。游戏的大火使得游戏中的暴力等元素被数个团体批评[37][38]。Rockstar在随后的三年里又发售了两款续作，《俠盜獵車手：罪惡城市》和《俠盜獵車手：聖安地列斯》，《圣安地列斯》自带了一个无法通过正常方式游玩的热咖啡模组，其中含有露骨的性爱内容。事件发生后不久，美国政府决定采取行动。2005年，加利福尼亚州政府宣布禁止向未成年人出售带有暴力内容的电子游戏[39]。

之后的几年里，一批青少年犯罪及谋杀案被发现与侠盗猎车手系列游戏有关。杰克·汤普森代表受害者将Rockstar、Take-Two Interactive和索尼告上法庭，声称侠盗猎车手系列游戏中的暴力内容直接导致了罪案频发，要求三家公司进行赔偿。然而，这些诉讼最终要么被自愿撤诉，要么在判决前就已被驳回。汤普森本人也同意不再对Take-Two Interactive采取法律行动，不过他后来成为了一名反暴力电子游戏的活动人士[40]。BBC后来制作了一部纪录片《游戏改变者（英语：The Gamechangers）》记录这一事件。

温嫩登校园枪击案[编辑]

2009年3月11日，一名枪手来到了德国温嫩登的阿尔贝维尔实科中学，随后射杀多人。事后调查发现枪手喜欢玩反恐精英系列电子游戏和《極地戰嚎2》[41][42]。在随后的几周里，德国政界和相关人士向政府施压，要求立法禁止在国内销售带有暴力元素的电子游戏，但这一要求最终未能达成[43][44][45]。

《決勝時刻：現代戰爭2》及“别说俄语”关卡[编辑]

主条目：No Russian

2009年发售的第一人称射击游戏《決勝時刻：現代戰爭2》包含了一个极具争议的任务关卡：“别说俄语”。在这一关里玩家会扮演一名中情局特工，奉命渗透一个恐怖组织并取得信任，因此他必须参加在莫斯科国际机场的屠杀任务；组织头目为了让人们认为这次恐怖袭击由美国策划，在开始袭击前，对所有袭击者说“Remember, no Russian”（直译为“记住，不要说俄语”，但也有“要杀光现场的俄国人”的意思）。玩家准备开始单人模式之前，游戏会询问玩家是否跳过本关，因为本关有“令人不适的内容”。跳过本关不会惩罚玩家，也不会影响玩家的游戏进度。这一关最后组织头目会杀害主角，并表示自己早已知道主角的真实身份，他的真正目的是引发俄美战争，如果人们发现有中情局特工参与恐怖袭击的话正好能够达到这个目的。

在《使命召唤：现代战争2》正式发布之前，这一关的内容就已被提前泄露到了互联网上，迫使发行商动视和制作商Infinity Ward对记者和活动家的批评做出回应。动视回应说，画面确实来自本游戏，但强调这一任务并不代表游戏其他部分，并且给出了关卡在游戏剧情中的上下文[46][47]。游戏正式发布后，这一关仍饱受批评，一些记者说这表示电子游戏产业仍不成熟[48]。该任务被视为电子游戏行业的分水岭，因为The mission is considered a watershed moment for the video game industry, in how certain depictions of violence can be seen as acceptable while others, like "No Russian", are considered unacceptable.[49][50]

2010年代[编辑]

布朗訴娛樂商業協會案[编辑]

主条目：布朗訴娛樂商業協會案

To address violent video games, several U.S. states passed laws that restricted the sale of mature video games, particularly those with violent or sexual content, to children. Video game industry groups fought these laws in courts and won.[51][52] The most significant case came out of a challenge to a California law passed in 2005 that banned the sale of mature games to minors as well as requiring an enhanced content rating system beyond the ESRB's. Industry groups fought this and won, but the case ultimately made it to the Supreme Court of the United States. In Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, the Supreme Court ruled that video games were a protected form of speech, qualifying for First Amendment protections, and laws like California's that block sales on a basis outside of the Miller test were unconstitutional.[53] Justice Antonin Scalia, who wrote the majority opinion, considered that violence in many video games was no different from that presented in other children's media, such as Grimm's Fairy Tales.[54]

桑迪胡克小学枪击案[编辑]

2012年12月14日，亚当·兰扎在桑迪胡克小学内枪杀26人后自杀。根据调查人员的说法，亚当·兰扎曾购入大量电子游戏，其中包括一些具有暴力元素的电子游戏[55][56]。这一发现在政界和媒体界引起了新一轮反对暴力电子游戏的呼声[57][58]，美国副总统乔·拜登会见了一批电子游戏行业的代表[59]。美国全国步枪协会说电子游戏产业，特别是背景设置在学校内的射击游戏是桑迪胡克小学枪击案的罪魁祸首[60][61]。

2016年慕尼黑槍擊案[编辑]

2016年，18岁的戴维·阿里·桑波里在德国巴伐利亚慕尼黑莫萨赫的奧林匹亞購物中心（英语：Olympia-Einkaufszentrum）枪杀9人后自杀。德国联邦内政和国土部部长托马斯·德迈齐埃在事后宣称，“互联网上美化暴力的游戏泛滥成灾，对青少年的成长也产生了有害影响。任何有理智的人都不会否认这一点”[62]。他的发言遭到媒体专家迈克·毛什的批评，毛什说，“没有一个理智的科学家敢如此肯定地说出这样的话。而如果没有科学家敢这么说，也就不应该有政府部长敢这么说”[63]。

2018年佛罗里达校园枪击案[编辑]

The Stoneman Douglas High School shooting occurred on February 14, 2018, in Parkland, Florida. In the aftermath, Kentucky Governor Matt Bevin declared that the country should re-evaluate "the things being put in the hands of our young people",[64] specifically "quote-unquote video games" that "have desensitized people to the value of human life".[65] A month later, President Donald Trump called for several industry representatives and advocates to meet in Washington, D.C. to discuss the impact of violent video games with him and his advisors. Industry leaders included Michael Gallagher, ESA president; Patricia Vance, ESRB president; Robert Altman, CEO of ZeniMax Media; and Strauss Zelnick, CEO of Take-Two, while advocates included Brent Bozell, of the Media Research Center and Melissa Henson of the Parents Television Council. While the video game industry asserted the lack of connection between violent video games and violent acts, their critics asserted that the industry should take steps to limit youth access and marketing to violent video games in ways similar to the approaches taken for alcohol and tobacco use.[66]

苏扎诺市校园枪击案[编辑]

2019年3月13日，吉尔默·蒙泰罗和露易兹·卡斯特罗进入巴西圣保罗州蘇扎諾的巴西劳尔教授中学射杀8人，随后自杀。巴西副总统漢密爾頓·莫朗随后表示这起枪击案可能是年轻人沉迷于暴力电子游戏的结果，还声称巴西父母的日常工作使年轻人更难得到正确的教育[67]。巴西的游戏玩家们则在社交媒体上使用#SomosGamersNãoAssassinos（“#我们是玩家不是杀人犯”）表示抗议[68]。

埃尔帕索枪击案及代顿枪击案[编辑]

Two mass shootings occurring within a day of each other, one in El Paso, Texas and another in Dayton, Ohio, in August 2019 provoked political claims that video games were partially to blame for the incidents. U.S. President Donald Trump stated days after the shootings, "We must stop the glorification of violence in our society. This includes the gruesome and grisly video games that are now commonplace".[69] House Minority Leader Kevin McCarthy also blamed video games for these events, stating, "I've always felt that it's a problem for future generations and others. We've watched from studies, shown before, what it does to individuals, and you look at these photos of how it took place, you can see the actions within video games and others."[32] News organizations and the video game industry reiterated the findings of the past, that there was no link between video games and violent behavior, and criticized politicians for putting video games to task when the issues lied within proper gun control.[69][32]

Halle synagogue shooting (2019)[编辑]

The Halle synagogue shooting occurred on October 9, 2019, in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, continuing in nearby Landsberg. The suspect, identified by the media as Stephan Baillet, was influenced by far-right ideology and managed to live-stream his attack on Facebook and Twitch.[70] In the process of the attack, he managed to kill two people before being subdued by police. Given the live-streamed nature of the attack, German Minister of the Interior Horst Seehofer claimed that "many of the perpetrators or the potential perpetrators come from the gaming scene" with regards to incidents like the shooting in Halle.[71] His comments received widespread criticism from German gamers and politicians, such as SPD general secretary Lars Klingbeil, who stated that "The problem is right-wing extremism, not gamers or anything else."[72]

2020年代[编辑]

School shooting in Torreon, Mexico (2020)[编辑]

Hours after a school shooting in Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico, in January 2020, the governor of that state, Miguel Ángel Riquelme Solís, stated that the 11-year-old shooter was wearing a T-shirt with the logo of Natural Selection, a mod for the game Half-Life, and claimed he could have been influenced by the game.[73] The governor's comment sparked a debate about the link between violence and video games. Erik Salazar Flores of the College of Psychology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) stated that blaming video games for violence is an "easy way out" for authorities who wish to ignore the complexity of the problem.[74] Dalila Valenzuela, a sociologist from Autonomous University of Baja California said that while video games can influence children's behavior, their parents are most directly responsible.[75]

纳赫尔·梅尔祖克抗议[编辑]

2023年6月，17岁的北非裔法国人纳赫尔·梅尔祖克在巴黎郊区楠泰尔被一名警察开枪击毙，随后引发大规模的抗议和暴乱。法国总统埃马纽埃尔·马克龙在同月批评电子游戏“毒害”一些青年骚乱者[76]。

研究[编辑]

The policy statement of the American Psychological Association (APA) related to video games states "Scant evidence has emerged that makes any causal or correlational connection between playing violent video games and actually committing violent activities."[69] The APA has acknowledged that violent video games strongly correlates with aggressive behavior, as well as anti-social behavior, but distinguishes between aggression and violence. A 2015 APA review of current studies in this area described the link between violent video games and aggressive behavior as "both as an increase in negative outcomes such as aggressive behavior, cognition, and affect and as a decrease in positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression."[77] However, the APA recognized the studies tended to be disproportionate to normal demographics.[77]

Further, the APA issued a policy statement in 2017 aimed at politicians and media to urge them to avoid linking violent video games with violent crimes, reiterating the subject of their findings over the years.[78] In a follow-up statement in 2020, the APA reaffirmed that there remains insufficient evidence to link video games to violent behavior. They had found that there was "small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing," but could not extend that to more violent activities.[79]

Christopher Ferguson, a professor at Stetson University and a researcher on the connection between violent video games and violent behavior, has stated that "[t]here's not evidence of a correlation, let alone a causation" between videogames and violence.[80] Ferguson's more recent studies have shown that there is no predictive behavior that can be inferred from the playing of violent video games.[81][82]

A longitudinal study published in Molecular Psychiatry in 2021 found no significant changes in semantic accessibility to aggressive words, frustration tolerance, empathy, or prosocial behavior between those who played a violent video game and those who played a non-violent video game daily for two months.[83] Similarly, a 2023 study published in eLife found that playing violent video games, specifically "Grand Theft Auto V," does not decrease empathy in players. The research used fMRI and behavioral tests to measure empathy and found no significant evidence of reduced empathetic responses or emotional reactions to violence in players.[84]

暴力网络游戏的负面影响[编辑]

Theories of negative effects of video games tend to focus on players' modeling of behaviors observed in the game. These effects may be exacerbated due to the interactive nature of these games. The most well-known theory of such effects is the cognitive neo-association theory (also referred to as Script Theory), which proposes that playing violent video games may create cognitive scripts of aggression which will be activated in incidents in which individuals think others are acting with hostility.[85] Playing violent video games, thus, becomes an opportunity to rehearse acts of aggression, which then become more common in real life. The General Aggression Model, a meta-theoretical framework to understand how various theories work together to explain aggressive behaviors, incorporates various theories suggesting that the simulated violence of video games may influence players' thoughts, feelings and physical arousal, affecting individuals' interpretation of others' behavior and increasing their own aggressive behavior.[86] Some scholars have criticized the general aggression model, arguing that the model wrongly assumes that aggression is primarily learned and that the brain does not distinguish reality from fiction.[87] Some recent studies have explicitly claimed to find evidence against the effect of short-term exposure to violent video games on aggression.[88][89][90]

Parents can protect their children from violence used in video games by limiting game usage and privileges. Some biological theories of aggression have specifically excluded video game and other media effects because the evidence for such effects is considered weak and the impact too distant. For example, the catalyst model of aggression comes from a diathesis-stress perspective, implying that aggression is due to a combination of genetic risk and environmental strain. The catalyst model suggests that stress, coupled with antisocial personality are salient factors leading to aggression. It does allow that proximal influences such as family or peers may alter aggressiveness but not media and games.[91][92]

研究方法[编辑]

Research has focused on two elements of the effects of video games on players: the player's health measures and educational achievements as a function of game play amounts; the players' behavior or perceptions as a function of the game's violence levels;[93] the context of the game play in terms of group dynamics; the game's structure which affects players' visual attention or three dimensional constructional skills; and the mechanics of the game which affects hand–eye coordination.[94] Two other research methods that have been used are experimental (in a laboratory), where the different environmental factors can be controlled, and non-experimental, where those who participate in studies simply log their video gaming hours.[4]

科学界的争论[编辑]

一种常见的理论认为，玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏会增加青少年的攻击性。许多研究声称得到了支持这一假设的结果[4][95][96]，但也有不少研究认为二者之间没有任何关联[97][98]。正反两方面的学者之间仍在激烈争论[99][100]。

一手研究[编辑]

1998年，史蒂文·柯什在学术期刊《童年》中写道，游玩电子游戏会导致敌对归因偏差（英语：hostile attribution bias），他让55名受试者分成两组，分别玩暴力的和非暴力的电子游戏。之后，受试者被要求阅读人物行为模糊的故事，柯什发现被选中玩带有暴力元素电子游戏的受试者更有可能对故事做出负面解释[101]。安德森和迪尔在2000年进行的另一项研究发现，在大学生中，玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏与暴力犯罪之间存在相关性，在激进的男性玩家中，这种相关性更强[102]，但有学者指出这项研究的结果并无一致性，研究方法也有缺陷[103]。

In 2001, David Satcher, the Surgeon General of the United States, said "We clearly associate media violence to aggressive behavior. But the impact was very small compared to other things. Some may not be happy with that, but that's where the science is."[104]

A 2002 US Secret Service study of 41 individuals who had been involved in school shootings found that twelve percent were attracted to violent video games, twenty-four percent read violent books and twenty-seven percent were attracted to violent films.[105] Some scholars have indicated that these numbers are unusually low compared to violent media consumption among non-criminal youth.[106]

In 2003, a study was conducted at Iowa State University assessing pre-existing attitudes and violence in children.[107] The study concerned children between ages 5 and 12 that were assessed for the typical amount of time they played video games per week and pre-existing empathy and attitudes towards violence. The children played a violent or non-violent video game for approximately 15 minutes. Afterwards, their pulse rates were recorded, and the children were asked how frustrating the games were on a 1-10 scale. Last, the children are given drawings (vignettes) of everyday situations, some more likely to have aggressive actions following the depiction, while others an empathetic action. Results show that there were no significant effects of video game playing in the short term, with violent video games and non-violent video games having no significant differences, indicating that children do not have decreased empathy from playing violent video games. Conversely, children who play more violent video games over a long period of time were associated with lower pre-existing empathy, and also lower scores on the empathy inducing vignettes, indicating long-term effects. It is possible that video games had not primed children for the particular aggression scenarios. This data could indicate desensitization in children can occur after long-term exposure, but not all children were affected in the same way, so the researchers deduced that some children may be at a higher risk of these negative effects. It is possible that fifteen minutes is not quite long enough to produce short-term cognitive effects.

In 2003, Jeanne B. Funk and her colleagues at the Department of Psychology at the University of Toledo examined the relationship between exposure to violence through media and real-life, and desensitization (reflected by loss of empathy and changes in attitudes toward violence) in fourth and fifth grade pupils. Funk found that exposure to video game violence was associated with lowered empathy and stronger proviolence attitudes.[108]

Another study from 2003, by John Colwell at the University of Westminster, found that violent video game playing was associated with reduced aggression among Japanese youth.[109]

The American Psychological Association (APA) released an official statement in 2005, which said that exposure to violent media increases feelings of hostility, thoughts about aggression, suspicions about the motives of others, and demonstrates violence as a method to deal with potential conflict situations, that comprehensive analysis of violent interactive video game research suggests such exposure increases aggressive behavior, thoughts, angry feelings, physiological arousal, and decreases helpful behavior, and that studies suggest that sexualized violence in the media has been linked to increases in violence towards women, rape myth acceptance and anti-women attitudes. It also states that the APA advocates reduction of all violence in videogames and interactive media marketed to children and youth, that research should be made regarding the role of social learning, sexism, negative depiction of minorities, and gender on the effects of violence in video games and interactive media on children, adolescents, and young adults, and that it engages those responsible for developing violent video games and interactive media in addressing the issue that playing violent video games may increase aggressive thoughts and aggressive behaviors in children, youth, and young adults, and that these effects may be greater than the well documented effects of exposure to violent television and movies. They also recommend to the entertainment industry that the depiction of the consequences of violent behavior be associated with negative social consequences and that they support a rating system which accurately reflects the content of video games and interactive media. The statement was updated in 2015 (see below.)

Some scholars suggested that the APA's policy statement ignored discrepant research and misrepresented the scientific literature.[110][111] In 2013 a group of over 230 media scholars wrote an open letter to the APA asking them to revisit and greatly amend their policy statement on video game violence, due to considering the evidence to be mixed. Signatories to the 2013 letter included psychologists Jeffrey Arnett, Randy Borum, David Buss, David Canter, Lorenza Colzato, M. Brent Donnellan, Dorothy Espelage, Frank Farley, Christopher Ferguson, Peter Gray, Mark D. Griffiths, Jessica Hammer, Mizuko Ito, James C. Kaufman, Dana Klisanin, Catherine McBride-Chang, Jean Mercer, Hal Pashler, Steven Pinker, Richard M. Ryan, Todd K. Shackelford, Daniel Simons, Ian Spence, and Dean Simonton, criminologists Kevin Beaver, James Alan Fox, Roger J.R. Levesque, and Mike A. Males, game design researchers Bob De Schutter and Kurt Squire, communications scholar Thorsten Quandt, and science writer Richard Rhodes.[112][113]

2005年，布鲁斯·D·巴塞洛等联合了密苏里大学、密西根大学、阿姆斯特丹自由大学和北卡罗来纳大学四所大学的人力，电子游戏中的暴力内容与大脑中脱敏相关的事件相关电位有关联。作者认为，长期接触带有暴力元素的电子游戏会对大脑功能和行为产生长期的有害影响[114]。

2005年，尼古拉斯·L·卡纳吉等人在爱荷华州立大学、密西根大学和阿姆斯特丹自由大学的一项研究发现，曾玩过带有暴力元素的电子游戏的人在观看真实的暴力影片时，心率和皮肤电刺激反应（英语：Electrodermal activity）都较常人偏低，这表明他们对暴力已经生理脱敏[115]。

2007年斯威本科技大學的一项研究发现孩童对带有暴力元素的电子游戏的反应各不相同，一些孩子变得更加具有攻击性，一些孩子变得更温和，大多数孩子并无行为模式上的明显变化[116]。

In 2008, a longitudinal study conducted in Japan assessed possible long-term effects of video game playing in children.[117] The final analysis consisted of 591 fifth graders aged 10–11 across eight public elementary schools, and was conducted over the course of a year. Initially, children were asked to complete a survey which assessed presence or absence of violence in the children's favorite video games, as well as video game context variables that may affect the results and the aggression levels of the children. Children were assessed again for these variables a year later. Results reveal that there is a significant difference in gender, with boys showing significantly more aggressive behavior and anger than girls, which was attributed by the authors to boys elevated interest in violent video games. However the interaction between time spent gaming and preference for violent games was associated with reduced aggression in boys but not girls. The researchers also found that eight context variables they assessed increased aggression, including unjustified violence, availability of weapons, and rewards. Three context variables, role-playing, extent of violence, and humor, were associated with decreased aggression. It is unknown if the observed changes from the two surveys are actually contextual effects. The researchers found that the context and quality of the violence in video games affects children more than simply presence and amount of violence, and these effects are different from child to child.

In 2008 the Pew Internet and American Life Project statistically examined the impact of video gaming on youths' social and communal behaviors. Teens who had communal gaming experiences reported much higher levels of civic and political engagement than teens who had not had these kinds of experiences. Youth who took part in social interaction related to the game, such as commenting on websites or contributing to discussion boards, were more engaged communally and politically. Among teens who play games, 63% reported seeing or hearing "people being mean and overly aggressive while playing," 49% reported seeing or hearing "people being hateful, racist or sexist while playing", and 78% reported witnessing "people being generous or helpful while playing".[118][119]

In 2009, a report of three studies conducted among students of different age groups in Singapore, Japan, and the United States, found that prosocial mostly nonviolent games increased helpful prosocial behaviour among the participants.[120]

In 2010, Patrick and Charlotte Markey suggested that violent video games only caused aggressive feelings in individuals who had a preexisting disposition, such as high neuroticism, low agreeableness, or low conscientiousness.[121]

In 2010, after a review of the effects of violent video games, the Attorney General's Office of Australia reported that even though the Anderson meta-analysis of 2010 was the pinnacle of the scientific debate at that time, significant harm from violent video games had not been persuasively proven or disproven, except that there was some consensus that they might be harmful to people with aggressive or psychotic personality traits.[122]

The attorney general considered a number of issues including:

  • Social and political controversy about the topic.
  • Lack of consensus about definitions and measures of aggression and violent video games (for example, whether a cartoon game has the same impact as a realistic one).
  • Levels of aggression may or may not be an accurate marker for the likelihood of violent behaviour.
  • The playing of violent video games may not be an independent variable in determining violent acts (for example, violent behaviour after playing violent video games may be age dependant, or players of violent video games may watch other violent media).
  • Studies may not have been long or large enough to provide clear conclusions.[122]

In 2010, researchers Paul Adachi and Teena Willoughby at Brock University critiqued experimental video game studies on both sides of the debate, noting that experimental studies often confounded violent content with other variables such as competitiveness.[123] In a follow up study, the authors found that competitiveness but not violent content was associated with aggression.[124]

In 2011, a thirty-year study of 14,000 college students, published by the University of Michigan which measured overall empathy levels in students, found that these had dropped by 40% since the 1980s. The biggest drop came after the year 2000, which the authors speculated was due to multiple factors, including increased societal emphasis on selfishness, changes in parenting practices, increased isolation due to time spent with information technology, and greater immersion in all forms of violent and/or narcissistic media including, but not limited to, news, television and video games. The authors did not provide data on media effects, but referenced various research of the topics.[125]

In 2011, in a longitudinal study of youth in Germany, von Salisch found that aggressive children tend to select more violent video games. This study found no evidence that violent games caused aggression in minors. The author speculated that other studies may have been affected by "single responder bias" due to self-reporting of aggression rather than reporting by parents or teachers.[126]

In 2012 a Swedish study examined the cooperative behavior of players in The Lord of the Rings Online. The authors argued that attempts to link collaborative or aggressive behavior within the game to real life behavior would rely on unwarranted assumptions regarding equivalencies of forms of cooperation and the material conditions of the environment in-game and out-of-game.[127]

One study from Morgan Tear and Mark Nielsen in 2013 concluded that violent video games did not reduce or increase prosocial behavior, failing to replicated previous studies in this area.[98]

In 2013, Isabela Granic and colleagues at Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, argued that even violent video games may promote learning, health, and social skills, but that not enough games had been developed to treat mental health problems. Granic et al. noted that both camps have valid points, and a more balanced perspective and complex picture is necessary.[128]

In 2014, Ferguson and Olson found no correlation between video game violence and bullying or delinquency in children with preexisting attention deficit disorder or depressive symptoms.[129]

In 2014, Villanova professor Patrick M. Markey conducted a study with 118 teenagers suggesting that video games have no influence on increased aggression of users; however, he did find that when used for the right amount of time (roughly 1 hour) video games can make children nicer and more socially interactive. This information was provided by the teens teachers at their local schools.[130][來源可靠？]

A 2014 study by Andrew Przybylski at Oxford University examined the impact of violent content and frustration on hostility among video game players. In a series of experiments, Przybylski and colleagues demonstrated that frustration, but not violent content, increased player hostility. The authors also demonstrated that some previous "classic" violent video game experiments were difficult to replicate.[131]

One longitudinal study from 2014 suggested that violent video games were associated with very small increases in risk taking behavior over time.[132]

In 2015, the American Psychological Association released a review that found that violent video games caused aggressive behavior, with Mark Appelbaum, the chair of the task force that conducted the review, saying that "the link between violence in video games and increased aggression in players is one of the most studied and best established in the field." However, Appelbaum also characterized the size of the correlation as "not very big". The same review found insufficient evidence of a link between such video games and crime or delinquency. Critics, including Peter Gray and Christopher Ferguson, expressed concerns about methodological limitations of the review. Ferguson stated that "I think (the task force members) were selected because their opinions were pretty clear going in." At least four of the seven task force members had previously expressed opinions on the topic; critics argued this alone constitutes a conflict of interest, while a task force member defended that "If it were common practice to exclude all scientists after they render one conclusion, the field would be void of qualified experts".[133][134]

A 2015 study examined the impact of violent video games on young adults players with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The study found no evidence for an impact of playing such games on aggression among ASD players. These results appeared to contradict concerns following the 2012 Sandy Hook shooting, that individuals with ASD or other mental conditions might be particularly susceptible to violent video game effects.[135]

One study from 2016 suggested that "sexist" games (using games from the Grand Theft Auto series as exemplars) may reduce empathy toward women. Although no direct game effect was found, the authors argued that an interaction between game condition, masculine role norms, gender and avatar identification produced enough evidence to claim causal effects. Comments by other scholars on this study reflect some concerns over the methodology including a possible failure of the randomization to game conditions (see comments tab).[136]

In 2016, a preregistered study of violent video game effects concluded that violent video games did not influence aggression in players.[90] The preregistered nature of the study removed the potential for the scholars to "nudge" the results of the study in favor of the hypothesis and suggests that preregistration of future studies may help clarify results in the field.

元分析[编辑]

Because the results of individual studies have often reached different conclusions, debate has often shifted to the use of meta-analysis. This method attempts to average across individual studies, determine whether there is some effect on average, and test possible explanations for differences between study results.

A number of meta-analyses have been conducted, at times reaching different conclusions. A 2001 meta-analysis reviewing the relationship between video game violence and aggression in teenagers (n = 3,033) found a significant and positive correlation, indicating that high video game violence does lead to greater aggression among teenagers.[4]

Another meta-analysis conducted the same year by John Sherry was more skeptical of effects, specifically questioning whether the interactivity of video games made them have more effect than other media.[5] Sherry later published another meta-analysis in 2007, again concluding that the influence of video game violence on aggression was minimal. Sherry also criticized the observed dose-response curve, reporting that smaller effects were found in experimental studies with longer exposure times, where one might expect greater exposure to cause greater effects.[137]

In 2010, Anderson's group published a meta-analysis of one hundred and thirty international studies with over 130,000 participants. He reported that exposure to violent video games caused both short-term and long-term aggression in players and decreased empathy and pro-social behavior.[138] However, other scholars criticized this meta-analysis for excluding non-significant studies and for other methodological flaws.[139][140][141] Anderson's group have defended their analysis, rejecting these critiques.[142] Rowell Huesmann, a psychology and social studies academic at the University of Michigan wrote an editorial supporting the Anderson meta-analysis.[143] A later re-analysis of the Anderson meta-analysis suggested that there was greater publication bias among experiments than Anderson and colleagues had accounted for. This indicated that the effects observed in laboratory experiments may have been smaller than estimated and perhaps not statistically significant.[144] A reply by Anderson and colleagues acknowledged that there was publication bias among experiments, but disagreed that the degree of bias was large enough to bring the effect into question.[145]

A 2015 meta-analysis of video game effects suggested that video games, including violent games, had minimal impact on children's behavior including violence, prosocial behavior and mental health.[146] The journal included a debate section on this meta-analysis including scholars who were both supportive[147] and critical[148][149] of this meta-analysis. The original author also responded to these comments, arguing that few coherent methodological critiques had been raised.[150] In 2016, Kanamori and Doi replicated the original Angry Birds meta-analysis and concluded that critiques of the original meta were largely unwarranted.[151]

In 2018, a meta-analysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time found that "violent video game play is positively associated with aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect, as well as negatively associated with empathy for victims of violence and with prosocial behavior".[152]

A 2020 meta-analysis of long-term outcome studies concluded that evidence did not support links between earlier playing of violent games and later aggression. The authors found an overall correlation of r = 0.059, and stated that better quality studies were less likely to find evidence for effects than poorer quality studies.[153][154]

使用功能性磁共振成像进行的研究[编辑]

The extent to which video games have a long-term effect on the brain is disputed. Some scientists have attempted to use functional magnetic resonance imaging to study this hypothesis. Some studies suggested that participants who engaged with VVGs displayed increases in the functioning of their amygdala and decreases in the functioning of their frontal lobe.[155] Some scholars argue that the effect on the frontal lobe may be similar to the deactivation seen in disruptive behavior disorders.[156][157] However, potential funding conflicts of interest have been noted for some of these studies. During the Brown Vs. EMA legal case, it was noted that the studies conducted by Kronenberger were openly funded by "The Center for Successful Parenting", which may mean a conflict of interest.[158]

Further, other studies have failed to find a link between violent games and diminished brain function. For example, an fMRI study by Regenbogen and colleagues found no link between violent video games and a diminished ability to differentiate between real and virtual violence.[159] Another study from 2016 using fMRI found no evidence that VVGs led to a desensitization effect in players.[160] In a recent BBC interview, Dr. Simone Kuhn explained that the brain effects seen in prior fMRI studies likely indicated that players were simply able to distinguish between reality and fiction and modulate their emotional reaction accordingly, not becoming desensitized.[161]

Studies on the effect on crime[编辑]

In 2008, records held by the US Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and Office of Justice Programs indicated that arrests for violent crime in the US had decreased since the early 1990s in both children and adults.[162][163][164] This decrease occurred contemporaneously with increasing sales of violent video games and increases in graphically violent content in those games.[165][166]

Studies of violent video game playing and crime have generally not supported the existence of causal links. Evidence from studies of juveniles[167][168][169] as well as criminal offenders[170] has generally not uncovered evidence for links. Some studies have suggested that violent video game playing may be associated with reductions in some types of aggression, such as bullying.[171]

Studies of mass shootings have, likewise, provided no evidence for links with violent video games. A 2002 report from the US Secret Service found that school shooters appeared to consume relatively low levels of violent media.[172] Some criminologists have referred to claims linking violent video games to mass shootings as a "myth".[173]

Some studies have examined the consumption of violent video games in society and violent crime rates. Generally, it is acknowledged that societal violent video game consumption has been associated with over an 80% reduction in youth violence in the US during the corresponding period.[174] However, scholars note that, while this data is problematic for arguments that violent video games increase crime, such data is correlational and cannot be used to conclude video games have caused this decline in crime.[175]

Other studies have examined data on violent video games and crime trends more closely and have come to the conclusion that the release of very popular violent video games are causally associated with corresponding declines in violent crime in the short term. A 2011 study by the Center for European Economic Research[176] found that violent video games may be reducing crime. This is possibly because the time spent playing games reduces time spent engaged in more antisocial activities. Other recent studies by Patrick Markey[177] and Scott Cunningham[178] have come to similar conclusions.

美国的公众辩论[编辑]

Jack Thompson, an activist, filed lawsuits against the makers of violent games, alleging that simulated violence causes real-world violence.

In the early 1980s, Ronnie Lamm, the president of the Long Island PTA sought legislation to govern the proximity of video game arcades to schools.[179] In the 1990s, Joe Lieberman, a US Senator, chaired a hearing about violent video games such as Mortal Kombat.[180] David Grossman, a former West Point psychology lecturer and lieutenant colonel, wrote books about violence in the media including: On Killing (1996) and Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill (1999).[181] He described first-person shooter games as murder simulators, and argued that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and harden them emotionally towards commitments of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.[182]

In 2003, Craig A. Anderson, a researcher who testified on the topic before the U.S. Senate, said,

"[S]ome studies have yielded nonsignificant video game effects, just as some smoking studies failed to find a significant link to lung cancer. But when one combines all relevant empirical studies using meta-analytic techniques, it shows that violent video games are significantly associated with: increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased pro-social (helping) behavior."[183][184][185][186]

In 2005, Anderson was criticized in court for failing to give balanced expert evidence.[187]

In 2008, in Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do, Kutner and Olsen refuted claims that violent video games cause an increase in violent behavior in children. They report there is a scientifically non-significant trend showing that adolescents who do not play video games at all are most at risk for violent behavior and video game play is part of an adolescent boy's normal social setting. However, the authors did not completely deny the negative influences of violent (M-rated) video games on pre-teens and teenagers: Kutner and Olson suggested the views of alarmists and those of representatives of the video game industry are often supported by flawed or misconstrued studies and that the factors leading to violence in children and adolescents were more subtle than whether or not they played violent video games.[188][189]

Henry Jenkins, an academic in media studies, said,

"According to federal crime statistics, the rate of juvenile violent crime in the United States is at a 30-year low. Researchers find that people serving time for violent crimes typically consume less media before committing their crimes than the average person in the general population. It's true that young offenders who have committed school shootings in America have also been game players. But young people in general are more likely to be gamers—90 percent of boys and 40 percent of girls play. The overwhelming majority of kids who play do not commit antisocial acts. According to a 2001 U.S. Surgeon General's report, the strongest risk factors for school shootings centered on mental stability and the quality of home life, not media exposure. The moral panic over violent video games is doubly harmful. It has led adult authorities to be more suspicious and hostile to many kids who already feel cut off from the system. It also misdirects energy away from eliminating the actual causes of youth violence and allows problems to continue to fester."[190]

In 2013, Corey Mead, a professor of English at Baruch College, wrote about how the U.S. military financed the original development of video games, and has long used them for both training, recruitment purposes, and treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. He also argues that the two industries are currently intertwined into each other in a "military-entertainment complex".[191] Writing in 2013, scholars James Ivory and Malte Elson noted that, although research on video game effects remained inconclusive, the culture of the academic field itself had become very contentious and that politicians had put pressure on scientists to produce specific research findings. The authors concluded it is improper for scholars or legislators to, at present, portray video games as a public health crisis.[113] Research by Oxford psychologist Andrew Przybylski has shown that Americans are split in opinion on how video game violence links to gun violence. Przybylski found that older people, women rather than men, people who knew less about games and who were very conservative in ideology were most likely to think video games could cause gun violence.[192]

Several groups address video game violence as a topic that they focus on. Groups such as Parents Against Violence, Parents Against Media Violence and One Million Moms take stances aimed at limiting the violence in video games and other media.[193][194][195]

Video games, particularly violent ones, are often mentioned as a cause for major gun crimes in the wake of school shooting by young adults. For example, Adam Lanza, the 20-year-old shooter at the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, was found to have numerous video games in his possession, leading for some people to blame video games for the shooting;[196] however, the State Attorney did not link video game to the event in their final report of the incident, though identified that video game addiction may have been connected.[197][198] In February 2018, following the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, President Donald Trump, among others, said "the level of violence on video games is really shaping young people's thoughts".[199] Rhode Island state representative Robert Nardolillo also proposed legislation to tax violent video games (those rated "Mature" or higher by the ESRB) to use funds for supporting mental health programs in the state.[200]

Following the Stoneman Douglas shooting event, President Trump arranged to meet with several video game industry professionals on March 8, 2018; in attendance beyond Trump and other Congressmen included Mike Gallagher, the president and CEO of the ESA; Pat Vance, the president of the ESRB; Strauss Zelnick, CEO of Take Two Interactive, Robert Altman, CEO of ZeniMax Media; Brent Bozell, founder of the Media Research Center; and Melissa Hanson, program manager for the Parents Television Council. The meeting was not designed to come to a solution but only for the invited parties to present their stance on video games and their relationship to violent activity as to try to determine appropriate steps in the future.[201] At the start of the meeting, the President showed the attendees a short 88-second video of numerous violent video game segments put together by his staff, including the infamous "No Russian" level from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, which featured the player watching and potentially participating in a massacre of civilians in an airport.[202]

The White House later released the video to YouTube, where it quickly became popular due to the controversy over the relationship between video games and real-life violence; despite being unlisted shortly after being uploaded, it has reached about 1.6 million views as of 2023.[203][204] The video is still accessible via URL, and media outlets like IGN included links to the original in their responses to the matter.[205] Games for Change made a short response video with 550.000 views titled "#GameOn".[206]

Nation factors[编辑]

Australia[编辑]

Video games are rated in Australia by the Australian Classification Board (ACB), run out of the federal Attorney-General's Department. ACB also oversees ratings on films and applies the same ratings system as to video games. Broadly, the ratings system is based on a number of factors including violence. The ACB can refuse to classify a film or game if they felt the content was beyond allowable guidelines for the strictest ratings. Titles refused classification by ACB are thus illegal to sell within Australia and assess fines for those that attempted to import such games, while allowing titles with more mature ratings to be sold under regulated practices. Prior to 2011, video games could only qualify up to a "MA15+" rating, and not the next highest tier of "R18+" which were allowed for film. Several high-profile games thus were banned in Australia. The ACB agreed to allow video games to have R18+ ratings in 2011, and some of these games that were previously banned were subsequently allowed under R18+.

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Ferguson, C. J., & Olson, C. K. (2014). Video Game Violence Use Among “Vulnerable” Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying Among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(1), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5 Lee, E.-J., Kim, H. S., & Choi, S. (2021). Violent Video Games and Aggression: Stimulation or Catharsis or Both? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0033

外部链接[编辑]

Template:Video game controversy Template:Media and human factors

Category:电子游戏 Category:电子游戏争议 Category:Moral panic

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