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草稿:電子遊戲與暴力

本頁使用了標題或全文手工轉換
維基百科，自由的百科全書

電子遊戲自誕生以來，就常被批評含有暴力元素。許多政客、家長及活動家宣稱電子遊戲與暴力行為有聯繫，特別是與青少年的暴力行為有聯繫。美國心理學會認為儘管帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲與冒犯性的行為有關，但將暴力行為都歸咎於帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲是「不科學的說法」[1][2]。

背景[編輯]

自20世紀90年代末以來，因為人們認為犯罪嫌疑人可能有玩暴力電子遊戲的歷史，一些可能與遊戲有關的暴力事件被大肆宣傳。1999年的科倫拜校園事件造成了道德恐慌，使得學者們開始研究帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲是否會影響現實中的行為[3][頁碼請求]。一些研究發現遊玩有暴力元素的電子遊戲會增加或減少親社會行為（英語：prosocial behavior），或者與其增減有相關性[4][5]，其他研究則認為帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲根本就沒有這樣的功能[6]。2005年，美國娛樂軟件協會主席在接受公共廣播電視公司採訪時否認帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲會導致反社會行為，他在採訪中說：「坦率地說，這是不了解這個行業的人在過分誇大其詞」[7][與來源不符]。此外，還有一些人認為電子遊戲行業成了現實中各類社會問題的替罪羊[8][9][10]，玩電子遊戲本身對青少年有積極的影響[11][12]。

公眾的一種主要擔憂是，由於電子遊戲受眾中有很大一部分是年輕人，因此特別容易受到電子遊戲特別是其中的暴力元素的影響[7]。2022年進行的一項大規模研究發現至少有1/4的玩家年齡介乎10歲和20歲間[13]，此外一項針對12至17歲間，1102位青少年的研究發現，1102人中有97%在訪談的前一天玩過電子遊戲，這97%的人群中，又有14%的女孩和50%的男孩喜歡玩「M」（包含適合17歲以上玩家的內容）或「AO」（內容只適合18歲以上的成人）評級的遊戲，而有25%的家長在購買遊戲前根本不會查看評級[14]。

歷史[編輯]

電子遊戲誕生前[編輯]

在歷史上，人們曾對漫畫雜誌抱有與電子遊戲類似的道德恐慌。1950年代，美國進入漫畫黃金時代，隨着產業的發展，一些藝術家和出版商開始出版、發行更頻繁地描繪暴力和其他擦邊內容的漫畫。1954年，精神病學家弗雷德里克·魏特漢出版了《純真的誘惑（英語：Seduction of the Innocent）》一書，宣稱漫畫中的暴力情節會誘導青少年去模仿，從而引發犯罪行為。即便魏特漢的一些說法後來被發現並不嚴謹，這本書還是引起了道德恐慌，迫使漫畫行業規範作品。同年，漫畫行業組建了漫畫準則管理局，嚴格規範內容，通過自我審查消除了大部分暴力和其他承認內容。其後，主流漫畫業逐漸衰落，而成人漫畫的地下市場則逐漸形成。直到接近20年後，漫畫行業才從漫畫監管局的規定中恢復過來，但不再那麼嚴格地遵守漫畫準則管理局的要求。進入千禧年後，人們普遍不再考慮漫畫準則管理局的要求[15]。也因此，人們常把對漫畫雜誌的恐慌和對遊戲的恐慌相提並論。而遊戲開發商也會儘量避免自我審查，以免影響銷量[16][17]。

彈珠台和漫畫雜誌的境遇相似，在20世紀50、60年代的美國，叛逆的青少年經常會在彈珠檯旁閒逛，有代溝的老一輩美國人無法理解這些青少年，因此對這些青年人感到恐慌。在一些人看來，彈珠檯似乎是一種賭博（這導致彈珠檯上往往貼有「僅供娛樂」的標籤），而信奉宗教的人更擔心彈球是「魔鬼的工具」。由於民眾對彈珠台產生了道德恐慌，許多城市不得不限制甚至禁止彈珠檯，不過這些禁令大都只維持到了70年代初。比如，紐約在1976年前一直禁止人們玩彈珠台[18]，芝加哥的禁令則一直維持到了1977年[19]。隨着電子遊戲的出現，叛逆的青少年們將目光從彈珠檯上轉移到了電子遊戲上，彈珠檯的禁令也是在電子遊戲出現後沒多久後被紛紛解除的，但人們對彈珠檯的擔憂也部分轉移到了電子遊戲上[20]。

1970–1980年代[編輯]

在《乓》火遍街機遊戲界後，街機遊戲製作商意識到了電子遊戲的潛力，並試圖將其推廣開來；製作商們先在酒吧和酒廊推出新款的電子遊戲，這讓他們在內容上有了更大的創作空間——雖然仍遭到一些人批評[20]。在1976年前就已經有兩款街機電子遊戲因不道德的內容而受到公眾關注：1973年雅達利製作的迷宮遊戲《Gotcha（英語：Gotcha (video game)）》出廠時，遊戲機的兩個操縱杆上覆有代表女性乳房的粉紅圓球，不過後來版本的遊戲機更換了操縱杆的樣式。1975年雅達利未經授權改編自同名電影的《大白鯊（英語：Shark Jaws）》包含了大量暴力內容，不過該款遊戲中玩家扮演的是被大白鯊追殺的人類[20]。隨着街機遊戲進一步鋪開，這些遊戲最終引起了公眾的擔憂[20]。

1976年的街機電子遊戲《死亡飛車》往往被認為是第一個以暴力內容為賣點的遊戲，這款遊戲與《大白鯊》一樣，也是一款未經授權改編自電影的遊戲。這款遊戲的遊戲機器上就有着大量與死亡相關的符號，而在遊戲中玩家被要求在時限內駕車碾過儘可能多的葛雷姆林[20]。這引起了美聯社記者溫迪·沃克的注意，她聯繫了遊戲的製作商Exidy，並向他們表明了她的擔憂[21]。沃克的擔憂隨後傳到了其他媒體機構那裡，比如美國全國安全委員會，該委員會後來指責這款遊戲美化了碾壓他人的行為，而當時美國全國安全委員會正試圖對駕駛員們進行安全駕駛教育。雖說一些街機廳後來因為沃克的擔憂退回了遊戲機，但伴隨着媒體曝光，該款機器的總體銷量不減反增[22]。這款遊戲之前的不少遊戲也含有暴力元素，比如《警察和小偷（英語：Cops 'n' Robbers）》、《坦克》和《噴氣式戰鬥機（英語：Jet Fighter (video game)）》，但這些遊戲都沒有像《死亡飛車》一樣引起這麼大的爭議。雅達利的諾蘭·布什內爾這麼解釋：「我們雅達利有一條內部規定，不允許對人使用暴力。在遊戲裡你可以炸坦克，你可以炸飛碟，但你不能直接炸人。我們認為直接炸人不妥，在我任職期間，我們一直恪守這一規定。」[20]

美國軍醫總監查爾斯·埃弗雷特·庫普（英語：C. Everett Koop）是第一批公開認為電子遊戲可能導致青少年暴力的人之一。1982年，庫普以個人身份撰文表示「越來越多的人」開始認同電子遊戲可能對青少年的身心健康有不良影響，儘管當時還未有充分的證據得到任何結論[23][24]。

1990年代[編輯]

《真人快打》及1993年美國國會電子遊戲聽證會[編輯]

參見：真人快打相關爭議

1992年發售的街機格鬥遊戲《真人快打》包含有大量血腥場面，遊戲中還出現了「必殺技（英語：Fatality (Mortal Kombat)）」的玩法，即終結敵人時使用的標誌性、更為血腥的攻擊方式。《真人快打》走紅後，業界湧現了一批帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲，不過，這些遊戲是街機獨占式的遊戲，因此一般會被與面向青少年的非暴力遊戲區分開來[25][26]。然而，家用遊戲機廠商們在《真人快打》走紅後都想移植該款作品到自家主機上，特別是當時正處在遊戲機大戰（英語：console war）中，爭奪美國市場的世嘉和任天堂兩家[27]。世嘉移植版的《真人快打》保留了街機版的所有血腥場面（但需要使用作弊碼才能激活），任天堂版則去掉了大部分血腥場面，紅色的血液也被灰色的「汗液」代替。然而，世嘉版的銷量最終遠超任天堂版[26]。

《真人快打》、《午夜陷阱》和《致命執法者（英語：Lethal Enforcers）》三款遊戲的爆火引來了美國參議員喬·李伯曼和赫伯·科爾（英語：Herb Kohl）二人的注意。1993-1994年間，二人主持了兩場國會聽證會，與業界、電子遊戲公司代表和相關群體探討電子遊戲中的暴力問題[26]。世嘉及任天堂等電子遊戲公司皆被批評缺乏完善的電子遊戲分級制度，利伯曼威脅說如果電子遊戲公司不自行整改，國會將採取行動規範行業[28]。在第二次聽證會中，世嘉、任天堂和其他廠商就成立娛樂軟件分級委員會進行自願評級達成了一致，該委員會最終於1994年落地[29][30]。這兩場聽證會還促使業界成立了負責管理娛樂軟件分級委員會的互動數字軟件協會，後改稱娛樂軟件協會[30][31]。

傑克·湯普森[編輯]

主條目：傑克·湯普森 § 電子遊戲官司

已被除牌的美國律師傑克·湯普森批評說一些電子遊戲含有淫穢內容，並組織活動攻擊開發商和發售商。他認為，帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲是青少年排練暴力事件計劃的「殺人模擬器」，這些遊戲和一些校園慘案之間的聯繫密不可分。

科倫拜校園事件[編輯]

1999年4月20日，埃里克·哈里斯和迪倫·克萊伯德在美國科羅拉多州傑斐遜縣哥倫拜恩高中槍殺13人，隨後自殺。兩名行兇者後被發現是包括《毀滅戰士》在內一批帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲的忠實粉絲。由於是次事件導致公眾認為電子遊戲與槍擊案有關聯，國會舉行了聽證會，比爾·克林頓總統下令調查校園槍擊案以及電子遊戲是如何向青少年銷售的[32]。2004年，美國特勤局和美國教育部聯合發布的報告中發現，12%的校園槍擊案犯罪者對電子遊戲感興趣[32][33]。

哥倫拜恩槍擊案發生後，媒體開始重審之前發生的槍擊案，發現1998年韋斯特賽德中學槍擊案（英語：1998 Westside Middle School shooting）的兩名主謀也喜歡玩各種第一人稱射擊遊戲，還曾一起玩《黃金眼007》[34][35]。

2000年代[編輯]

《俠盜獵車手III》及相關訴訟[編輯]

2001年，Rockstar Games在PlayStation 2平台上發售了《俠盜獵車手III》，該款遊戲允許玩家控制主人公克勞德在一座現代都市中進行城市黑社會犯罪活動。該款遊戲還是第一批開放世界遊戲，允許玩家自由控制完成任務的方式，玩家可以在遊戲中鬥毆、打槍或是飆車。遊戲發售後大賣，在6個月內售出200萬份[36]。遊戲的大火使得遊戲中的暴力等元素被數個團體批評[37][38]。Rockstar在隨後的三年裡又發售了兩款續作，《俠盜獵車手：罪惡城市》和《俠盜獵車手：聖安地列斯》，《聖安地列斯》自帶了一個無法通過正常方式遊玩的熱咖啡模組，其中含有露骨的性愛內容。事件發生後不久，美國政府決定採取行動。2005年，加利福尼亞州政府宣布禁止向未成年人出售帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲[39]。

之後的幾年裡，一批青少年犯罪及謀殺案被發現與俠盜獵車手系列遊戲有關。傑克·湯普森代表受害者將Rockstar、Take-Two Interactive和索尼告上法庭，聲稱俠盜獵車手系列遊戲中的暴力內容直接導致了罪案頻發，要求三家公司進行賠償。然而，這些訴訟最終要麼被自願撤訴，要麼在判決前就已被駁回。湯普森本人也同意不再對Take-Two Interactive採取法律行動，不過他後來成為了一名反暴力電子遊戲的活動人士[40]。BBC後來製作了一部紀錄片《遊戲改變者（英語：The Gamechangers）》記錄這一事件。

溫嫩登校園槍擊案[編輯]

2009年3月11日，一名槍手來到了德國溫嫩登的阿爾貝維爾實科中學，隨後射殺多人。事後調查發現槍手喜歡玩反恐精英系列電子遊戲和《極地戰嚎2》[41][42]。在隨後的幾周里，德國政界和相關人士向政府施壓，要求立法禁止在國內銷售帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲，但這一要求最終未能達成[43][44][45]。

《決勝時刻：現代戰爭2》及「別說俄語」關卡[編輯]

主條目：No Russian

2009年發售的第一人稱射擊遊戲《決勝時刻：現代戰爭2》包含了一個極具爭議的任務關卡：「別說俄語」。在這一關里玩家會扮演一名中情局特工，奉命滲透一個恐怖組織並取得信任，因此他必須參加在莫斯科國際機場的屠殺任務；組織頭目為了讓人們認為這次恐怖襲擊由美國策劃，在開始襲擊前，對所有襲擊者說「Remember, no Russian」（直譯為「記住，不要說俄語」，但也有「要殺光現場的俄國人」的意思）。玩家準備開始單人模式之前，遊戲會詢問玩家是否跳過本關，因為本關有「令人不適的內容」。跳過本關不會懲罰玩家，也不會影響玩家的遊戲進度。這一關最後組織頭目會殺害主角，並表示自己早已知道主角的真實身份，他的真正目的是引發俄美戰爭，如果人們發現有中情局特工參與恐怖襲擊的話正好能夠達到這個目的。

在《使命召喚：現代戰爭2》正式發布之前，這一關的內容就已被提前泄露到了互聯網上，迫使發行商動視和製作商Infinity Ward對記者和活動家的批評做出回應。動視回應說，畫面確實來自本遊戲，但強調這一任務並不代表遊戲其他部分，並且給出了關卡在遊戲劇情中的上下文[46][47]。遊戲正式發布後，這一關仍飽受批評，一些記者說這表示電子遊戲產業仍不成熟[48]。該任務被視為電子遊戲行業的分水嶺，因為自這之後，像「別說俄語」關卡這樣的遊戲內容被公眾認為是不應出現在遊戲中的內容[49][50]。

2010年代[編輯]

布朗訴娛樂商業協會案[編輯]

主條目：布朗訴娛樂商業協會案

為解決帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲的問題，美國多個州一度通過了限制向兒童出售「M」評級電子遊戲的法律，尤其是含有暴力或性內容的遊戲。電子遊戲行業團體在法庭上反對這些法律，並贏得了不少訴訟[51][52]。其中最重要的案件是對2005年加利福尼亞州通過的法律的挑戰，該法禁止向未成年人出售「M」評級的遊戲，並要求在娛樂軟件分級委員會的分級基礎上使用更嚴格的內容分級系統。電子遊戲行業團體在地方法庭反對這一法律，並在地方法庭勝訴，但該案隨即被帶到美國最高法院。在布朗訴娛樂商業協會案中，最高法院裁定電子遊戲為傳媒形式之一，故而受到美國憲法第一修正案的保護，而像加利福尼亞州這樣，以米勒測試之外的依據阻止銷售的法律是違憲的[53]。大法官安東寧·斯卡利亞為該案撰寫了裁決書的主要觀點，他寫道電子遊戲中的暴力內容和《格林童話》中的暴力內容之間並沒有什麼區別[54]。

桑迪胡克小學槍擊案[編輯]

2012年12月14日，亞當·蘭扎在桑迪胡克小學內槍殺26人後自殺。根據調查人員的說法，亞當·蘭扎曾購入大量電子遊戲，其中包括一些具有暴力元素的電子遊戲[55][56]。這一發現在政界和媒體界引起了新一輪反對暴力電子遊戲的呼聲[57][58]，美國副總統喬·拜登會見了一批電子遊戲行業的代表[59]。美國全國步槍協會說電子遊戲產業，特別是背景設置在學校內的射擊遊戲是桑迪胡克小學槍擊案的罪魁禍首[60][61]。

2016年慕尼黑槍擊案[編輯]

2016年，18歲的戴維·阿里·桑波里在德國巴伐利亞慕尼黑莫薩赫的奧林匹亞購物中心（英語：Olympia-Einkaufszentrum）槍殺9人後自殺。德國聯邦內政和國土部部長托馬斯·德邁齊埃在事後宣稱，「互聯網上美化暴力的遊戲泛濫成災，對青少年的成長也產生了有害影響。任何有理智的人都不會否認這一點」[62]。他的發言遭到媒體專家邁克·毛什的批評，毛什說，「沒有一個理智的科學家敢如此肯定地說出這樣的話。而如果沒有科學家敢這麼說，也就不應該有政府部長敢這麼說」[63]。

瑪喬麗·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中槍擊案[編輯]

2018年2月14日，19歲的尼古拉斯·克魯茲進入佛羅里達州帕克蘭的瑪喬麗·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中槍殺17人，並重傷多人。肯塔基州州長馬特·貝文隨即呼籲美國應該重新審視「交到青少年手裡的東西」[64]，特別是「讓人們對人的生命價值變得不敏感」的「被反覆提及的電子遊戲」[65]。事發一個月後，美國總統唐納·川普在華盛頓特區會見了一些行業的代表和倡議者，討論帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲的影響：出席者包括娛樂軟件協會總裁麥克·加拉格爾、娛樂軟件分級委員會總裁帕特里夏·萬斯、ZeniMax Media首席執行官羅伯特·奧特曼、Take-Two首席執行官斯特勞斯·澤爾尼克、媒體研究中心（英語：Media Research Center）的布倫特·博澤和家長電視委員會（英語：Parents Television Council）的梅麗莎·亨森。會議期間電子遊戲行業的代表仍堅稱帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲和暴力行為之間缺乏聯繫，而批評者也仍堅稱電子遊戲行業應當限制青少年接觸電子遊戲，就像應當限制青少年接觸酒類或是香煙一樣[66]。

蘇扎諾市校園槍擊案[編輯]

2019年3月13日，吉爾默·蒙泰羅和露易茲·卡斯特羅進入巴西聖保羅州蘇扎諾的巴西勞爾教授中學射殺8人，隨後自殺。巴西副總統漢密爾頓·莫朗隨後表示這起槍擊案可能是年輕人沉迷於暴力電子遊戲的結果，還聲稱巴西父母的日常工作使年輕人更難得到正確的教育[67]。巴西的遊戲玩家們則在社交媒體上使用#SomosGamersNãoAssassinos（「#我們是玩家不是殺人犯」）表示抗議[68]。

埃爾帕索槍擊案及代頓槍擊案[編輯]

2019年8月3日，21歲的帕特里克·伍德·克魯修斯在德克薩斯州埃爾帕索的一家沃爾瑪商店槍殺23人，並重傷多人。同日，24歲的康納·斯蒂芬·貝茨在俄亥俄州代頓的一家酒吧中槍殺9人，重傷多人。這兩起事件再度引起了電子遊戲導致暴力的說法。唐納德·特朗普在兩場槍擊案幾日後發表聲明：「我們必須停止在我們的社會中頌揚暴力，比如現今常見的一些可怕的、令人毛骨悚然的電子遊戲。」[69]眾議院少數黨領袖凱文·麥卡錫同樣認為電子遊戲是罪魁禍首，說：「我始終認為，這是關乎我們後代和每個人的問題。我們已經從研究中看到了它對個人的影響，從這些槍擊案的照片中可以看到電子遊戲和其他遊戲中的行為。」[32]新聞機構和電子遊戲行業重申了過去的研究結果，即電子遊戲和暴力行為之間沒有必然聯繫，並批評政客們在應當進行槍支管制的時候將責任全都推給電子遊戲[69][32]。

薩勒河畔哈雷猶太會堂槍擊案[編輯]

2019年10月9日，27歲的斯蒂芬·巴利特在德國薩克森-安哈爾特薩勒河畔哈雷的一間猶太會堂附近射殺兩人，射傷兩人（英語：Halle synagogue shooting），巴利特在作案時通過Facebook和Twitch進行直播，並在直播中發表了極右翼反猶言論[70]。德國內政部長霍斯特·澤霍費爾在事後表示「許多犯罪者或潛在犯罪者來自於遊戲圈」[71]，他的言論被德國遊戲玩家和政治家所批評德國社會民主黨總書記拉爾斯·克林拜爾說：「問題出在右翼極端主義上，而非遊戲玩家或者別的什麼」[72]。

2020年代[編輯]

托雷翁塞萬提斯學院槍擊案[編輯]

2020年1月10日，11歲的何塞·安赫爾·拉莫斯·貝茨在墨西哥科阿韋拉州托雷翁的塞萬提斯學院槍殺1人，打傷6人後自殺（英語：Colegio Cervantes shooting）。州長米格爾·安赫爾·里克爾梅·索利斯（英語：Miguel Ángel Riquelme Solís）在槍擊案後幾小時宣布，貝茨在作案時穿着一件印有《物競天擇》模組logo的襯衫，並表示他可能是受遊戲影響作案[73]。州長的言論隨即引發爭議，墨西哥國立自治大學心理學院的埃里克·薩拉薩爾·弗洛雷斯表示，對那些希望忽視問題本身複雜性的當局來說，將暴力歸咎於電子遊戲是一種「簡單的辦法」[74]。下加利福尼亞自治大學（英語：Autonomous University of Baja California）的社會學家達利拉·巴倫蘇埃拉評論說雖然電子遊戲可能會影響青少年的行為，但家長們要負最主要的責任[75]。

納赫爾·梅爾祖克抗議[編輯]

2023年6月，17歲的北非裔法國人納赫爾·梅爾祖克在巴黎郊區楠泰爾被一名警察開槍擊斃，隨後引發大規模的抗議和暴亂。法國總統埃馬紐埃爾·馬克龍在同月批評電子遊戲「毒害」一些青年騷亂者[76]。

研究[編輯]

The policy statement of the American Psychological Association (APA) related to video games states "Scant evidence has emerged that makes any causal or correlational connection between playing violent video games and actually committing violent activities."[69] The APA has acknowledged that violent video games strongly correlates with aggressive behavior, as well as anti-social behavior, but distinguishes between aggression and violence. A 2015 APA review of current studies in this area described the link between violent video games and aggressive behavior as "both as an increase in negative outcomes such as aggressive behavior, cognition, and affect and as a decrease in positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression."[77] However, the APA recognized the studies tended to be disproportionate to normal demographics.[77]

Further, the APA issued a policy statement in 2017 aimed at politicians and media to urge them to avoid linking violent video games with violent crimes, reiterating the subject of their findings over the years.[78] In a follow-up statement in 2020, the APA reaffirmed that there remains insufficient evidence to link video games to violent behavior. They had found that there was "small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing," but could not extend that to more violent activities.[79]

Christopher Ferguson, a professor at Stetson University and a researcher on the connection between violent video games and violent behavior, has stated that "[t]here's not evidence of a correlation, let alone a causation" between videogames and violence.[80] Ferguson's more recent studies have shown that there is no predictive behavior that can be inferred from the playing of violent video games.[81][82]

A longitudinal study published in Molecular Psychiatry in 2021 found no significant changes in semantic accessibility to aggressive words, frustration tolerance, empathy, or prosocial behavior between those who played a violent video game and those who played a non-violent video game daily for two months.[83] Similarly, a 2023 study published in eLife found that playing violent video games, specifically "Grand Theft Auto V," does not decrease empathy in players. The research used fMRI and behavioral tests to measure empathy and found no significant evidence of reduced empathetic responses or emotional reactions to violence in players.[84]

暴力網絡遊戲的負面影響[編輯]

Theories of negative effects of video games tend to focus on players' modeling of behaviors observed in the game. These effects may be exacerbated due to the interactive nature of these games. The most well-known theory of such effects is the cognitive neo-association theory (also referred to as Script Theory), which proposes that playing violent video games may create cognitive scripts of aggression which will be activated in incidents in which individuals think others are acting with hostility.[85] Playing violent video games, thus, becomes an opportunity to rehearse acts of aggression, which then become more common in real life. The General Aggression Model, a meta-theoretical framework to understand how various theories work together to explain aggressive behaviors, incorporates various theories suggesting that the simulated violence of video games may influence players' thoughts, feelings and physical arousal, affecting individuals' interpretation of others' behavior and increasing their own aggressive behavior.[86] Some scholars have criticized the general aggression model, arguing that the model wrongly assumes that aggression is primarily learned and that the brain does not distinguish reality from fiction.[87] Some recent studies have explicitly claimed to find evidence against the effect of short-term exposure to violent video games on aggression.[88][89][90]

Parents can protect their children from violence used in video games by limiting game usage and privileges. Some biological theories of aggression have specifically excluded video game and other media effects because the evidence for such effects is considered weak and the impact too distant. For example, the catalyst model of aggression comes from a diathesis-stress perspective, implying that aggression is due to a combination of genetic risk and environmental strain. The catalyst model suggests that stress, coupled with antisocial personality are salient factors leading to aggression. It does allow that proximal influences such as family or peers may alter aggressiveness but not media and games.[91][92]

研究方法[編輯]

Research has focused on two elements of the effects of video games on players: the player's health measures and educational achievements as a function of game play amounts; the players' behavior or perceptions as a function of the game's violence levels;[93] the context of the game play in terms of group dynamics; the game's structure which affects players' visual attention or three dimensional constructional skills; and the mechanics of the game which affects hand–eye coordination.[94] Two other research methods that have been used are experimental (in a laboratory), where the different environmental factors can be controlled, and non-experimental, where those who participate in studies simply log their video gaming hours.[4]

科學界的爭論[編輯]

一種常見的理論認為，玩帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲會增加青少年的攻擊性。許多研究聲稱得到了支持這一假設的結果[4][95][96]，但也有不少研究認為二者之間沒有任何關聯[97][98]。正反兩方面的學者之間仍在激烈爭論[99][100]。

初步研究[編輯]

1998年，史蒂文·柯什在學術期刊《童年》中寫道，遊玩電子遊戲會導致敵對歸因偏差（英語：hostile attribution bias），他讓55名受試者分成兩組，分別玩暴力的和非暴力的電子遊戲。之後，受試者被要求閱讀人物行為模糊的故事，柯什發現被選中玩帶有暴力元素電子遊戲的受試者更有可能對故事做出負面解釋[101]。安德森和迪爾在2000年進行的另一項研究發現，在大學生中，玩帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲與暴力犯罪之間存在相關性，在激進的男性玩家中，這種相關性更強[102]，但有學者指出這項研究的結果並無一致性，研究方法也有缺陷[103]。

2001年，美國醫務總監（英語：Surgeon General of the United States）大衛·撒切爾（英語：David Satcher）說：「我們顯然將媒體暴力與攻擊性行為聯繫在了一起。但與其他因素相比，這種影響非常小。有些人可能對此不滿意，但這就是科學。」[104]

2002年，美國特勤局對41名校園槍擊案的肇事者進行了調查，結果發現，其中有12%的人喜歡玩帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲，24%的人喜歡閱讀暴力書籍，27%的人喜歡看暴力電影[105]。一些學者指出，與一般青少年相比，這些數字異常低[106]。

In 2003, a study was conducted at Iowa State University assessing pre-existing attitudes and violence in children.[107] The study concerned children between ages 5 and 12 that were assessed for the typical amount of time they played video games per week and pre-existing empathy and attitudes towards violence. The children played a violent or non-violent video game for approximately 15 minutes. Afterwards, their pulse rates were recorded, and the children were asked how frustrating the games were on a 1-10 scale. Last, the children are given drawings (vignettes) of everyday situations, some more likely to have aggressive actions following the depiction, while others an empathetic action. Results show that there were no significant effects of video game playing in the short term, with violent video games and non-violent video games having no significant differences, indicating that children do not have decreased empathy from playing violent video games. Conversely, children who play more violent video games over a long period of time were associated with lower pre-existing empathy, and also lower scores on the empathy inducing vignettes, indicating long-term effects. It is possible that video games had not primed children for the particular aggression scenarios. This data could indicate desensitization in children can occur after long-term exposure, but not all children were affected in the same way, so the researchers deduced that some children may be at a higher risk of these negative effects. It is possible that fifteen minutes is not quite long enough to produce short-term cognitive effects.

2003年，托雷多大學心理學系的珍妮·B·豐克等人研究了四五年級學生接觸媒體中和現實生活中的暴力，與心理脫敏（具體表現包括喪失同理心、改變對暴力行為的看法）之間的關係。豐克發現接觸電子遊戲中的暴力內容與移情能力下降及親暴力態度之間有相關性[108]。

2003年，威斯敏斯特大學的約翰·科爾韋爾進行另一項研究發現玩帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲與日本青少年攻擊性減少有關[109]。

2005年，美國心理學會發表了一份決議書，認為遊戲中的暴力內容會增加敵對性、攻擊性想法、促使人們懷疑他人、認同使用暴力解決問題；對暴力性的互動電子遊戲研究的綜合分析表明，遊玩會增加攻擊性想法、行為、引發憤怒情緒和其他生理波動，並減少助人行為；媒體中的性暴力與對婦女的暴力行為、強姦謬論的接受度和反婦女態度的增長有相關性。該份決議書呼籲減少媒體（特別是針對兒童的節目和遊戲）中的暴力內容，呼籲從社會學習、性別歧視、對少數群體的負面描述以及性別的角度研究電子遊戲和其他媒體中的暴力行為對兒童和青少年造成的影響，呼籲讓遊戲的開發商加入進來一同解決電子遊戲中的暴力內容會使兒童和青少年產生攻擊性行為和認知的問題。該份決議書還建議娛樂業把暴力行為後果的描述與負面社會後果聯繫起來，並建立能準確反映電子遊戲和互動媒體內容的評級系統。

2013年，200多名媒體學者聯名質疑美國心理學會的決議書忽視了結果不一致的研究，歪曲了科學文獻[110][111]，聯名者呼籲重新審視相關研究證據，修訂之前的決議，並開展更多的研究。聯名者包括心理學家傑弗里·阿內特（英語：Jeffrey Arnett）、蘭迪·博勒姆（英語：Randy Borum）、戴維·巴斯、戴維·坎特、洛倫薩·科爾扎托（英語：Lorenza Colzato）、M·布倫特·唐納蘭（英語：M. Brent Donnellan）、多蘿西·埃斯佩拉奇（英語：Dorothy Espelage）、法蘭克·S·法利、克里斯托弗·弗格森（英語：Christopher Ferguson (psychologist)）、彼得·格雷、馬克·D·格里菲斯（英語：Mark D. Griffiths）、傑西卡·哈默（英語：Jessica Hammer）、伊藤瑞子（英語：Mizuko Ito）、詹姆斯·C·考夫曼（英語：James C. Kaufman）、丹娜·克里薩寧（英語：Dana Klisanin）、凱瑟琳·麥克布賴德-張（英語：Catherine McBride-Chang）、讓·默瑟（英語：Jean Mercer）、哈爾·帕什勒（英語：Hal Pashler）、斯蒂芬·平克、理查德·M·瑞安（英語：Richard M. Ryan）、托德·肯尼迪·沙克福（英語：Todd K. Shackelford）、丹尼爾·西蒙斯（英語：Daniel Simons）、伊恩·斯彭斯（英語：Ian Spence (psychologist)）和迪恩·西蒙頓（英語：Dean Simonton），犯罪學家凱文·比弗（英語：Kevin Beaver）、詹姆斯·艾倫·福克斯（英語：James Alan Fox）、羅傑·J·R·萊維斯克（英語：Roger J.R. Levesque）和邁克·A·馬爾斯（英語：Mike A. Males），遊戲設計研究者鮑勃·德舒特（英語：Bob De Schutter）、庫爾特·斯奎爾（英語：Kurt Squire），通訊學者托爾斯滕·夸特（英語：Thorsten Quandt）及科普作家理查德·羅茲[112][113]。

2005年，布魯斯·D·巴塞洛等聯合了密蘇里大學、密西根大學、阿姆斯特丹自由大學和北卡羅來納大學四所大學的學者，發現電子遊戲中的暴力內容與大腦中脫敏相關的事件相關電位有關聯。作者認為，長期接觸帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲會對大腦功能和行為產生長期的有害影響[114]。

2005年，尼古拉斯·L·卡納吉等人在愛荷華州立大學、密西根大學和阿姆斯特丹自由大學的一項研究發現，曾玩過帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲的人在觀看真實的暴力影片時，心率和皮膚電刺激反應（英語：Electrodermal activity）都較常人偏低，這表明他們對暴力已經生理脫敏[115]。

2007年斯威本科技大學的一項研究發現孩童對帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲的反應各不相同，一些孩子變得更加具有攻擊性，一些孩子變得更溫和，大多數孩子並無行為模式上的明顯變化[116]。

In 2008, a longitudinal study conducted in Japan assessed possible long-term effects of video game playing in children.[117] The final analysis consisted of 591 fifth graders aged 10–11 across eight public elementary schools, and was conducted over the course of a year. Initially, children were asked to complete a survey which assessed presence or absence of violence in the children's favorite video games, as well as video game context variables that may affect the results and the aggression levels of the children. Children were assessed again for these variables a year later. Results reveal that there is a significant difference in gender, with boys showing significantly more aggressive behavior and anger than girls, which was attributed by the authors to boys elevated interest in violent video games. However the interaction between time spent gaming and preference for violent games was associated with reduced aggression in boys but not girls. The researchers also found that eight context variables they assessed increased aggression, including unjustified violence, availability of weapons, and rewards. Three context variables, role-playing, extent of violence, and humor, were associated with decreased aggression. It is unknown if the observed changes from the two surveys are actually contextual effects. The researchers found that the context and quality of the violence in video games affects children more than simply presence and amount of violence, and these effects are different from child to child.

In 2008 the Pew Internet and American Life Project statistically examined the impact of video gaming on youths' social and communal behaviors. Teens who had communal gaming experiences reported much higher levels of civic and political engagement than teens who had not had these kinds of experiences. Youth who took part in social interaction related to the game, such as commenting on websites or contributing to discussion boards, were more engaged communally and politically. Among teens who play games, 63% reported seeing or hearing "people being mean and overly aggressive while playing," 49% reported seeing or hearing "people being hateful, racist or sexist while playing", and 78% reported witnessing "people being generous or helpful while playing".[118][119]

2009年，一份總結針對新加坡、日本和美國不同年齡段學生三項研究的報告中寫道，玩親社會遊戲能增加受試者的有益親社會行為[120]。

In 2010, Patrick and Charlotte Markey suggested that violent video games only caused aggressive feelings in individuals who had a preexisting disposition, such as high neuroticism, low agreeableness, or low conscientiousness.[121]

In 2010, after a review of the effects of violent video games, the Attorney General's Office of Australia reported that even though the Anderson meta-analysis of 2010 was the pinnacle of the scientific debate at that time, significant harm from violent video games had not been persuasively proven or disproven, except that there was some consensus that they might be harmful to people with aggressive or psychotic personality traits.[122]

The attorney general considered a number of issues including:

  • Social and political controversy about the topic.
  • Lack of consensus about definitions and measures of aggression and violent video games (for example, whether a cartoon game has the same impact as a realistic one).
  • Levels of aggression may or may not be an accurate marker for the likelihood of violent behaviour.
  • The playing of violent video games may not be an independent variable in determining violent acts (for example, violent behaviour after playing violent video games may be age dependant, or players of violent video games may watch other violent media).
  • Studies may not have been long or large enough to provide clear conclusions.[122]

In 2010, researchers Paul Adachi and Teena Willoughby at Brock University critiqued experimental video game studies on both sides of the debate, noting that experimental studies often confounded violent content with other variables such as competitiveness.[123] In a follow up study, the authors found that competitiveness but not violent content was associated with aggression.[124]

In 2011, a thirty-year study of 14,000 college students, published by the University of Michigan which measured overall empathy levels in students, found that these had dropped by 40% since the 1980s. The biggest drop came after the year 2000, which the authors speculated was due to multiple factors, including increased societal emphasis on selfishness, changes in parenting practices, increased isolation due to time spent with information technology, and greater immersion in all forms of violent and/or narcissistic media including, but not limited to, news, television and video games. The authors did not provide data on media effects, but referenced various research of the topics.[125]

In 2011, in a longitudinal study of youth in Germany, von Salisch found that aggressive children tend to select more violent video games. This study found no evidence that violent games caused aggression in minors. The author speculated that other studies may have been affected by "single responder bias" due to self-reporting of aggression rather than reporting by parents or teachers.[126]

2012年，瑞典的一項研究考察了《指環王Online：安格瑪之影》中玩家的合作行為。作者認為，將遊戲中的合作或攻擊行為與現實生活中的行為相聯繫的基礎是遊戲與現實中的物質條件相差不大，而這一基礎顯然站不住腳[127]。

2013年摩根·特爾和馬克·尼爾森的一項研究無法復現此前親社會行為增減的研究[98]。

2013年荷蘭拉德堡德大學的伊莎貝拉·格拉尼奇等人認為，即便是帶有暴力內容的電子遊戲也能促進人們提升學習、健康和社交技能，用於治療心理健康問題的遊戲還不夠多。伊莎貝拉·格拉尼奇還認為雙方的觀點都有一定道理，所以有必要從更平衡的角度和更複雜的情況出發進行分析[128]。

In 2014, Ferguson and Olson found no correlation between video game violence and bullying or delinquency in children with preexisting attention deficit disorder or depressive symptoms.[129]

In 2014, Villanova professor Patrick M. Markey conducted a study with 118 teenagers suggesting that video games have no influence on increased aggression of users; however, he did find that when used for the right amount of time (roughly 1 hour) video games can make children nicer and more socially interactive. This information was provided by the teens teachers at their local schools.[130][來源可靠？]

2014年，牛津大學的安德魯·普日比爾斯基研究了暴力內容和挫折感對電子遊戲玩家敵意的影響。普日比爾斯基等人發現挫敗感（而非暴力內容）會增加玩家的敵意。此外，普日比爾斯基等人還發現此前的一些「經典研究」的結果難以復現[131]。

One longitudinal study from 2014 suggested that violent video games were associated with very small increases in risk taking behavior over time.[132]

In 2015, the American Psychological Association released a review that found that violent video games caused aggressive behavior, with Mark Appelbaum, the chair of the task force that conducted the review, saying that "the link between violence in video games and increased aggression in players is one of the most studied and best established in the field." However, Appelbaum also characterized the size of the correlation as "not very big". The same review found insufficient evidence of a link between such video games and crime or delinquency. Critics, including Peter Gray and Christopher Ferguson, expressed concerns about methodological limitations of the review. Ferguson stated that "I think (the task force members) were selected because their opinions were pretty clear going in." At least four of the seven task force members had previously expressed opinions on the topic; critics argued this alone constitutes a conflict of interest, while a task force member defended that "If it were common practice to exclude all scientists after they render one conclusion, the field would be void of qualified experts".[133][134]

2015年的一項研究考察了帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲對患有自閉症的青年玩家的影響。研究發現，找不到證據表明玩這類遊戲會影響自閉症玩家的攻擊性。這一結果與2012年桑迪胡克槍擊案後的擔憂相矛盾，當時人們認為帶有暴力元素的電子遊戲對自閉症患者和其他精神病患者有更大的影響[135]。

2016年的一項研究表明，「性別歧視」類的遊戲（作者以俠盜獵車手系列遊戲為例）可能會降低對女性的共情能力。雖然作者沒有發現任何證據表明遊戲會直接造成影響，但作者認為，遊戲設定的條件、遊戲中的男性角色規範、性別和遊戲角色認同之間的交互作用產生了足夠的證據，因此可以認為二者之間有關係。其他學者對這項研究表達了對研究方法的一些擔憂，比如遊戲條件的隨機化可能不足以支撐結論（見評論部分）[136]。

In 2016, a preregistered study of violent video game effects concluded that violent video games did not influence aggression in players.[90] The preregistered nature of the study removed the potential for the scholars to "nudge" the results of the study in favor of the hypothesis and suggests that preregistration of future studies may help clarify results in the field.

元分析[編輯]

由於不同研究往往會得出南轅北轍的結論，故學術爭論往往會轉向元分析——一種整合各項研究，解釋不同研究結果之間差異的分析方法。

目前學界已進行了多項元分析的研究，但仍會得到不同的結論。一項2001年的元分析回顧了電子遊戲中的暴力內容與3033名青少年攻擊行為之間的關係，發現兩者之間存在顯著的正相關關係，得出結論電子遊戲中的暴力內容確實會導致青少年攻擊行為的增加[4]。同年，約翰·謝里進行的另一項元分析研究對電子遊戲中暴力內容的效果持懷疑態度，謝里特別研究了電子遊戲中的互動，認為電子遊戲不會因此產生更大的影響[5]。謝里後來在2007年發表了另一份元分析研究，再次得到認為電子遊戲中的暴力內容對攻擊行為的影響微乎其微的結論。謝里還引用他觀察到的劑量-反應曲線進行了反駁，他報告說人們會期望青少年接觸電子遊戲時間越長越有攻擊性，然而劑量-反應曲線表明接觸電子遊戲時間越長攻擊性反而越低[137]。

In 2010, Anderson's group published a meta-analysis of one hundred and thirty international studies with over 130,000 participants. He reported that exposure to violent video games caused both short-term and long-term aggression in players and decreased empathy and pro-social behavior.[138] However, other scholars criticized this meta-analysis for excluding non-significant studies and for other methodological flaws.[139][140][141] Anderson's group have defended their analysis, rejecting these critiques.[142] Rowell Huesmann, a psychology and social studies academic at the University of Michigan wrote an editorial supporting the Anderson meta-analysis.[143] A later re-analysis of the Anderson meta-analysis suggested that there was greater publication bias among experiments than Anderson and colleagues had accounted for. This indicated that the effects observed in laboratory experiments may have been smaller than estimated and perhaps not statistically significant.[144] A reply by Anderson and colleagues acknowledged that there was publication bias among experiments, but disagreed that the degree of bias was large enough to bring the effect into question.[145]

A 2015 meta-analysis of video game effects suggested that video games, including violent games, had minimal impact on children's behavior including violence, prosocial behavior and mental health.[146] The journal included a debate section on this meta-analysis including scholars who were both supportive[147] and critical[148][149] of this meta-analysis. The original author also responded to these comments, arguing that few coherent methodological critiques had been raised.[150] In 2016, Kanamori and Doi replicated the original Angry Birds meta-analysis and concluded that critiques of the original meta were largely unwarranted.[151]

In 2018, a meta-analysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time found that "violent video game play is positively associated with aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect, as well as negatively associated with empathy for victims of violence and with prosocial behavior".[152]

A 2020 meta-analysis of long-term outcome studies concluded that evidence did not support links between earlier playing of violent games and later aggression. The authors found an overall correlation of r = 0.059, and stated that better quality studies were less likely to find evidence for effects than poorer quality studies.[153][154]

使用功能性磁共振成像進行的研究[編輯]

電子遊戲對大腦的長期影響程度也存在一定爭議，學者們就此使用功能性磁共振成像進行了一些研究。一些研究表明，電子遊戲玩家的杏仁核功能增強，而額葉功能減弱[155]。一些學者由此認為電子遊戲對額葉的影響可能類似於侵擾行為障礙症（英語：disruptive behavior disorders）中出現的失活現象[156][157]。此外，這方面的一些研究被指存在利益衝突。布朗訴娛樂商業協會案中的一些人指出克羅嫩伯格所做的研究是由「成功父母中心」公開資助的，故可能意味着存在利益衝突[158]。

後來的其他研究無法找到含暴力元素的遊戲與大腦功能減退之間存在聯繫的證據。例如，雷根柏格等人進行的一項功能性磁共振成像研究發現，含暴力內容的電子遊戲與區分真實和虛擬暴力的能力下降之間沒有聯繫[159]。另一項2016年使用功能性磁共振成像進行的研究沒有發現證據表明暴力電子遊戲會導致玩家產生脫敏效應[160]。西蒙娜·庫恩博士在接受BBC採訪時解釋說，先前的功能性磁共振成像研究中看到的大腦效應很可能表明，玩家只是能夠區分現實和虛構，並相應地調節自己的情緒反應，而不是會發生心理上的脫敏[161]。

對犯罪影響的研究[編輯]

In 2008, records held by the US Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and Office of Justice Programs indicated that arrests for violent crime in the US had decreased since the early 1990s in both children and adults.[162][163][164] This decrease occurred contemporaneously with increasing sales of violent video games and increases in graphically violent content in those games.[165][166]

Studies of violent video game playing and crime have generally not supported the existence of causal links. Evidence from studies of juveniles[167][168][169] as well as criminal offenders[170] has generally not uncovered evidence for links. Some studies have suggested that violent video game playing may be associated with reductions in some types of aggression, such as bullying.[171]

Studies of mass shootings have, likewise, provided no evidence for links with violent video games. A 2002 report from the US Secret Service found that school shooters appeared to consume relatively low levels of violent media.[172] Some criminologists have referred to claims linking violent video games to mass shootings as a "myth".[173]

Some studies have examined the consumption of violent video games in society and violent crime rates. Generally, it is acknowledged that societal violent video game consumption has been associated with over an 80% reduction in youth violence in the US during the corresponding period.[174] However, scholars note that, while this data is problematic for arguments that violent video games increase crime, such data is correlational and cannot be used to conclude video games have caused this decline in crime.[175]

Other studies have examined data on violent video games and crime trends more closely and have come to the conclusion that the release of very popular violent video games are causally associated with corresponding declines in violent crime in the short term. A 2011 study by the Center for European Economic Research[176] found that violent video games may be reducing crime. This is possibly because the time spent playing games reduces time spent engaged in more antisocial activities. Other recent studies by Patrick Markey[177] and Scott Cunningham[178] have come to similar conclusions.

美國的公眾辯論[編輯]

Jack Thompson, an activist, filed lawsuits against the makers of violent games, alleging that simulated violence causes real-world violence.

In the early 1980s, Ronnie Lamm, the president of the Long Island PTA sought legislation to govern the proximity of video game arcades to schools.[179] In the 1990s, Joe Lieberman, a US Senator, chaired a hearing about violent video games such as Mortal Kombat.[180] David Grossman, a former West Point psychology lecturer and lieutenant colonel, wrote books about violence in the media including: On Killing (1996) and Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill (1999).[181] He described first-person shooter games as murder simulators, and argued that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and harden them emotionally towards commitments of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.[182]

In 2003, Craig A. Anderson, a researcher who testified on the topic before the U.S. Senate, said,

"[S]ome studies have yielded nonsignificant video game effects, just as some smoking studies failed to find a significant link to lung cancer. But when one combines all relevant empirical studies using meta-analytic techniques, it shows that violent video games are significantly associated with: increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased pro-social (helping) behavior."[183][184][185][186]

In 2005, Anderson was criticized in court for failing to give balanced expert evidence.[187]

In 2008, in Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do, Kutner and Olsen refuted claims that violent video games cause an increase in violent behavior in children. They report there is a scientifically non-significant trend showing that adolescents who do not play video games at all are most at risk for violent behavior and video game play is part of an adolescent boy's normal social setting. However, the authors did not completely deny the negative influences of violent (M-rated) video games on pre-teens and teenagers: Kutner and Olson suggested the views of alarmists and those of representatives of the video game industry are often supported by flawed or misconstrued studies and that the factors leading to violence in children and adolescents were more subtle than whether or not they played violent video games.[188][189]

Henry Jenkins, an academic in media studies, said,

"According to federal crime statistics, the rate of juvenile violent crime in the United States is at a 30-year low. Researchers find that people serving time for violent crimes typically consume less media before committing their crimes than the average person in the general population. It's true that young offenders who have committed school shootings in America have also been game players. But young people in general are more likely to be gamers—90 percent of boys and 40 percent of girls play. The overwhelming majority of kids who play do not commit antisocial acts. According to a 2001 U.S. Surgeon General's report, the strongest risk factors for school shootings centered on mental stability and the quality of home life, not media exposure. The moral panic over violent video games is doubly harmful. It has led adult authorities to be more suspicious and hostile to many kids who already feel cut off from the system. It also misdirects energy away from eliminating the actual causes of youth violence and allows problems to continue to fester."[190]

In 2013, Corey Mead, a professor of English at Baruch College, wrote about how the U.S. military financed the original development of video games, and has long used them for both training, recruitment purposes, and treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. He also argues that the two industries are currently intertwined into each other in a "military-entertainment complex".[191] Writing in 2013, scholars James Ivory and Malte Elson noted that, although research on video game effects remained inconclusive, the culture of the academic field itself had become very contentious and that politicians had put pressure on scientists to produce specific research findings. The authors concluded it is improper for scholars or legislators to, at present, portray video games as a public health crisis.[113] Research by Oxford psychologist Andrew Przybylski has shown that Americans are split in opinion on how video game violence links to gun violence. Przybylski found that older people, women rather than men, people who knew less about games and who were very conservative in ideology were most likely to think video games could cause gun violence.[192]

Several groups address video game violence as a topic that they focus on. Groups such as Parents Against Violence, Parents Against Media Violence and One Million Moms take stances aimed at limiting the violence in video games and other media.[193][194][195]

Video games, particularly violent ones, are often mentioned as a cause for major gun crimes in the wake of school shooting by young adults. For example, Adam Lanza, the 20-year-old shooter at the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, was found to have numerous video games in his possession, leading for some people to blame video games for the shooting;[196] however, the State Attorney did not link video game to the event in their final report of the incident, though identified that video game addiction may have been connected.[197][198] In February 2018, following the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, President Donald Trump, among others, said "the level of violence on video games is really shaping young people's thoughts".[199] Rhode Island state representative Robert Nardolillo also proposed legislation to tax violent video games (those rated "Mature" or higher by the ESRB) to use funds for supporting mental health programs in the state.[200]

Following the Stoneman Douglas shooting event, President Trump arranged to meet with several video game industry professionals on March 8, 2018; in attendance beyond Trump and other Congressmen included Mike Gallagher, the president and CEO of the ESA; Pat Vance, the president of the ESRB; Strauss Zelnick, CEO of Take Two Interactive, Robert Altman, CEO of ZeniMax Media; Brent Bozell, founder of the Media Research Center; and Melissa Hanson, program manager for the Parents Television Council. The meeting was not designed to come to a solution but only for the invited parties to present their stance on video games and their relationship to violent activity as to try to determine appropriate steps in the future.[201] At the start of the meeting, the President showed the attendees a short 88-second video of numerous violent video game segments put together by his staff, including the infamous "No Russian" level from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, which featured the player watching and potentially participating in a massacre of civilians in an airport.[202]

The White House later released the video to YouTube, where it quickly became popular due to the controversy over the relationship between video games and real-life violence; despite being unlisted shortly after being uploaded, it has reached about 1.6 million views as of 2023.[203][204] The video is still accessible via URL, and media outlets like IGN included links to the original in their responses to the matter.[205] Games for Change made a short response video with 550.000 views titled "#GameOn".[206]

國家因素[編輯]

澳大利亞[編輯]

Video games are rated in Australia by the Australian Classification Board (ACB), run out of the federal Attorney-General's Department. ACB also oversees ratings on films and applies the same ratings system as to video games. Broadly, the ratings system is based on a number of factors including violence. The ACB can refuse to classify a film or game if they felt the content was beyond allowable guidelines for the strictest ratings. Titles refused classification by ACB are thus illegal to sell within Australia and assess fines for those that attempted to import such games, while allowing titles with more mature ratings to be sold under regulated practices. Prior to 2011, video games could only qualify up to a "MA15+" rating, and not the next highest tier of "R18+" which were allowed for film. Several high-profile games thus were banned in Australia. The ACB agreed to allow video games to have R18+ ratings in 2011, and some of these games that were previously banned were subsequently allowed under R18+.

參考文獻[編輯]

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Ferguson, C. J., & Olson, C. K. (2014). Video Game Violence Use Among 「Vulnerable」 Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying Among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(1), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5 Lee, E.-J., Kim, H. S., & Choi, S. (2021). Violent Video Games and Aggression: Stimulation or Catharsis or Both? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0033

外部連結[編輯]


Category:電子遊戲 Category:電子遊戲爭議 Category:Moral panic

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