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草稿:电子游戏与暴力

本页使用了标题或全文手工转换
维基百科，自由的百科全书

电子游戏自诞生以来，就常被批评含有暴力元素。许多政客、家长及活动家宣称电子游戏与暴力行为有联系，特别是与青少年的暴力行为有联系。美国心理学会认为尽管带有暴力元素的电子游戏与冒犯性的行为有关，但将暴力行为都归咎于带有暴力元素的电子游戏是“不科学的说法”[1][2]。

背景[编辑]

自20世纪90年代末以来，因为人们认为犯罪嫌疑人可能有玩暴力电子游戏的历史，一些可能与游戏有关的暴力事件被大肆宣传。1999年的科伦拜校园事件造成了道德恐慌，使得学者们开始研究带有暴力元素的电子游戏是否会影响现实中的行为[3][页码请求]。一些研究发现游玩有暴力元素的电子游戏会增加或减少亲社会行为（英语：prosocial behavior），或者与其增减有相关性[4][5]，其他研究则认为带有暴力元素的电子游戏根本就没有这样的功能[6]。2005年，美国娱乐软件协会主席在接受公共广播电视公司采访时否认带有暴力元素的电子游戏会导致反社会行为，他在采访中说：“坦率地说，这是不了解这个行业的人在过分夸大其词”[7][与来源不符]。此外，还有一些人认为电子游戏行业成了现实中各类社会问题的替罪羊[8][9][10]，玩电子游戏本身对青少年有积极的影响[11][12]。

公众的一种主要担忧是，由于电子游戏受众中有很大一部分是年轻人，因此特别容易受到电子游戏特别是其中的暴力元素的影响[7]。2022年进行的一项大规模研究发现至少有1/4的玩家年龄介乎10岁和20岁间[13]，此外一项针对12至17岁间，1102位青少年的研究发现，1102人中有97%在访谈的前一天玩过电子游戏，这97%的人群中，又有14%的女孩和50%的男孩喜欢玩“M”（包含适合17岁以上玩家的内容）或“AO”（内容只适合18岁以上的成人）评级的游戏，而有25%的家长在购买游戏前根本不会查看评级[14]。

历史[编辑]

电子游戏诞生前[编辑]

在历史上，人们曾对漫画杂志抱有与电子游戏类似的道德恐慌。1950年代，美国进入漫画黄金时代，随着产业的发展，一些艺术家和出版商开始出版、发行更频繁地描绘暴力和其他擦边内容的漫画。1954年，精神病学家弗雷德里克·魏特汉出版了《纯真的诱惑（英语：Seduction of the Innocent）》一书，宣称漫画中的暴力情节会诱导青少年去模仿，从而引发犯罪行为。即便魏特汉的一些说法后来被发现并不严谨，这本书还是引起了道德恐慌，迫使漫画行业规范作品。同年，漫画行业组建了漫画准则管理局，严格规范内容，通过自我审查消除了大部分暴力和其他承认内容。其后，主流漫画业逐渐衰落，而成人漫画的地下市场则逐渐形成。直到接近20年后，漫画行业才从漫画监管局的规定中恢复过来，但不再那么严格地遵守漫画准则管理局的要求。进入千禧年后，人们普遍不再考虑漫画准则管理局的要求[15]。也因此，人们常把对漫画杂志的恐慌和对游戏的恐慌相提并论。而游戏开发商也会尽量避免自我审查，以免影响销量[16][17]。

弹珠台和漫画杂志的境遇相似，在20世纪50、60年代的美国，叛逆的青少年经常会在弹珠台旁闲逛，有代沟的老一辈美国人无法理解这些青少年，因此对这些青年人感到恐慌。在一些人看来，弹珠台似乎是一种赌博（这导致弹珠台上往往贴有“仅供娱乐”的标签），而信奉宗教的人更担心弹球是“魔鬼的工具”。由于民众对弹珠台产生了道德恐慌，许多城市不得不限制甚至禁止弹珠台，不过这些禁令大都只维持到了70年代初。比如，纽约在1976年前一直禁止人们玩弹珠台[18]，芝加哥的禁令则一直维持到了1977年[19]。随着电子游戏的出现，叛逆的青少年们将目光从弹珠台上转移到了电子游戏上，弹珠台的禁令也是在电子游戏出现后没多久后被纷纷解除的，但人们对弹珠台的担忧也部分转移到了电子游戏上[20]。

1970–1980年代[编辑]

在《乓》火遍街机游戏界后，街机游戏制作商意识到了电子游戏的潜力，并试图将其推广开来；制作商们先在酒吧和酒廊推出新款的电子游戏，这让他们在内容上有了更大的创作空间——虽然仍遭到一些人批评[20]。在1976年前就已经有两款街机电子游戏因不道德的内容而受到公众关注：1973年雅达利制作的迷宫游戏《Gotcha（英语：Gotcha (video game)）》出厂时，游戏机的两个操纵杆上覆有代表女性乳房的粉红圆球，不过后来版本的游戏机更换了操纵杆的样式。1975年雅达利未经授权改编自同名电影的《大白鲨（英语：Shark Jaws）》包含了大量暴力内容，不过该款游戏中玩家扮演的是被大白鲨追杀的人类[20]。随着街机游戏进一步铺开，这些游戏最终引起了公众的担忧[20]。

1976年的街机电子游戏《死亡飞车》往往被认为是第一个以暴力内容为卖点的游戏，这款游戏与《大白鲨》一样，也是一款未经授权改编自电影的游戏。这款游戏的游戏机器上就有着大量与死亡相关的符号，而在游戏中玩家被要求在时限内驾车碾过尽可能多的葛雷姆林[20]。这引起了美联社记者温迪·沃克的注意，她联系了游戏的制作商Exidy，并向他们表明了她的担忧[21]。沃克的担忧随后传到了其他媒体机构那里，比如美国全国安全委员会，该委员会后来指责这款游戏美化了碾压他人的行为，而当时美国全国安全委员会正试图对驾驶员们进行安全驾驶教育。虽说一些街机厅后来因为沃克的担忧退回了游戏机，但伴随着媒体曝光，该款机器的总体销量不减反增[22]。这款游戏之前的不少游戏也含有暴力元素，比如《警察和小偷（英语：Cops 'n' Robbers）》、《坦克》和《喷气式战斗机（英语：Jet Fighter (video game)）》，但这些游戏都没有像《死亡飞车》一样引起这么大的争议。雅达利的诺兰·布什内尔这么解释：“我们雅达利有一条内部规定，不允许对人使用暴力。在游戏里你可以炸坦克，你可以炸飞碟，但你不能直接炸人。我们认为直接炸人不妥，在我任职期间，我们一直恪守这一规定。”[20]

美国军医总监查尔斯·埃弗雷特·库普（英语：C. Everett Koop）是第一批公开认为电子游戏可能导致青少年暴力的人之一。1982年，库普以个人身份撰文表示“越来越多的人”开始认同电子游戏可能对青少年的身心健康有不良影响，尽管当时还未有充分的证据得到任何结论[23][24]。

1990年代[编辑]

《真人快打》及1993年美国国会电子游戏听证会[编辑]

参见：真人快打相关争议

1992年发售的街机格斗游戏《真人快打》包含有大量血腥场面，游戏中还出现了“必杀技（英语：Fatality (Mortal Kombat)）”的玩法，即终结敌人时使用的标志性、更为血腥的攻击方式。《真人快打》走红后，业界涌现了一批带有暴力元素的电子游戏，不过，这些游戏是街机独占式的游戏，因此一般会被与面向青少年的非暴力游戏区分开来[25][26]。然而，家用游戏机厂商们在《真人快打》走红后都想移植该款作品到自家主机上，特别是当时正处在游戏机大战（英语：console war）中，争夺美国市场的世嘉和任天堂两家[27]。世嘉移植版的《真人快打》保留了街机版的所有血腥场面（但需要使用作弊码才能激活），任天堂版则去掉了大部分血腥场面，红色的血液也被灰色的“汗液”代替。然而，世嘉版的销量最终远超任天堂版[26]。

《真人快打》、《午夜陷阱》和《致命执法者（英语：Lethal Enforcers）》三款游戏的爆火引来了美国参议员乔·利伯曼和赫伯·科尔（英语：Herb Kohl）二人的注意。1993-1994年间，二人主持了两场国会听证会，与业界、电子游戏公司代表和相关群体探讨电子游戏中的暴力问题[26]。世嘉及任天堂等电子游戏公司皆被批评缺乏完善的电子游戏分级制度，利伯曼威胁说如果电子游戏公司不自行整改，国会将采取行动规范行业[28]。在第二次听证会中，世嘉、任天堂和其他厂商就成立娱乐软件分级委员会进行自愿评级达成了一致，该委员会最终于1994年落地[29][30]。这两场听证会还促使业界成立了负责管理娱乐软件分级委员会的互动数字软件协会，后改称娱乐软件协会[30][31]。

杰克·汤普森[编辑]

主条目：杰克·汤普森 § 电子游戏官司

已被除牌的美国律师杰克·汤普森批评说一些电子游戏含有淫秽内容，并组织活动攻击开发商和发售商。他认为，带有暴力元素的电子游戏是青少年排练暴力事件计划的“杀人模拟器”，这些游戏和一些校园惨案之间的联系密不可分。

科伦拜校园事件[编辑]

1999年4月20日，埃里克·哈里斯和迪伦·克莱伯德在美国科罗拉多州杰斐逊县哥伦拜恩高中枪杀13人，随后自杀。两名行凶者后被发现是包括《毁灭战士》在内一批带有暴力元素的电子游戏的忠实粉丝。由于是次事件导致公众认为电子游戏与枪击案有关联，国会举行了听证会，比尔·克林顿总统下令调查校园枪击案以及电子游戏是如何向青少年销售的[32]。2004年，美国特勤局和美国教育部联合发布的报告中发现，12%的校园枪击案犯罪者对电子游戏感兴趣[32][33]。

哥伦拜恩枪击案发生后，媒体开始重审之前发生的枪击案，发现1998年韦斯特赛德中学枪击案（英语：1998 Westside Middle School shooting）的两名主谋也喜欢玩各种第一人称射击游戏，还曾一起玩《黄金眼007》[34][35]。

2000年代[编辑]

《侠盗猎车手III》及相关诉讼[编辑]

2001年，Rockstar Games在PlayStation 2平台上发售了《侠盗猎车手III》，该款游戏允许玩家控制主人公克劳德在一座现代都市中进行城市黑社会犯罪活动。该款游戏还是第一批开放世界游戏，允许玩家自由控制完成任务的方式，玩家可以在游戏中斗殴、打枪或是飙车。游戏发售后大卖，在6个月内售出200万份[36]。游戏的大火使得游戏中的暴力等元素被数个团体批评[37][38]。Rockstar在随后的三年里又发售了两款续作，《侠盗猎车手：罪恶都市》和《侠盗猎车手：圣安地列斯》，《圣安地列斯》自带了一个无法通过正常方式游玩的热咖啡模组，其中含有露骨的性爱内容。事件发生后不久，美国政府决定采取行动。2005年，加利福尼亚州政府宣布禁止向未成年人出售带有暴力内容的电子游戏[39]。

之后的几年里，一批青少年犯罪及谋杀案被发现与侠盗猎车手系列游戏有关。杰克·汤普森代表受害者将Rockstar、Take-Two Interactive和索尼告上法庭，声称侠盗猎车手系列游戏中的暴力内容直接导致了罪案频发，要求三家公司进行赔偿。然而，这些诉讼最终要么被自愿撤诉，要么在判决前就已被驳回。汤普森本人也同意不再对Take-Two Interactive采取法律行动，不过他后来成为了一名反暴力电子游戏的活动人士[40]。BBC后来制作了一部纪录片《游戏改变者（英语：The Gamechangers）》记录这一事件。

温嫩登校园枪击案[编辑]

2009年3月11日，一名枪手来到了德国温嫩登的阿尔贝维尔实科中学，随后射杀多人。事后调查发现枪手喜欢玩反恐精英系列电子游戏和《孤岛惊魂2》[41][42]。在随后的几周里，德国政界和相关人士向政府施压，要求立法禁止在国内销售带有暴力元素的电子游戏，但这一要求最终未能达成[43][44][45]。

《使命召唤：现代战争2》及“别说俄语”关卡[编辑]

主条目：No Russian

2009年发售的第一人称射击游戏《使命召唤：现代战争2》包含了一个极具争议的任务关卡：“别说俄语”。在这一关里玩家会扮演一名中情局特工，奉命渗透一个恐怖组织并取得信任，因此他必须参加在莫斯科国际机场的屠杀任务；组织头目为了让人们认为这次恐怖袭击由美国策划，在开始袭击前，对所有袭击者说“Remember, no Russian”（直译为“记住，不要说俄语”，但也有“要杀光现场的俄国人”的意思）。玩家准备开始单人模式之前，游戏会询问玩家是否跳过本关，因为本关有“令人不适的内容”。跳过本关不会惩罚玩家，也不会影响玩家的游戏进度。这一关最后组织头目会杀害主角，并表示自己早已知道主角的真实身份，他的真正目的是引发俄美战争，如果人们发现有中情局特工参与恐怖袭击的话正好能够达到这个目的。

在《使命召唤：现代战争2》正式发布之前，这一关的内容就已被提前泄露到了互联网上，迫使发行商动视和制作商Infinity Ward对记者和活动家的批评做出回应。动视回应说，画面确实来自本游戏，但强调这一任务并不代表游戏其他部分，并且给出了关卡在游戏剧情中的上下文[46][47]。游戏正式发布后，这一关仍饱受批评，一些记者说这表示电子游戏产业仍不成熟[48]。该任务被视为电子游戏行业的分水岭，因为自这之后，像“别说俄语”关卡这样的游戏内容被公众认为是不应出现在游戏中的内容[49][50]。

2010年代[编辑]

布朗诉娱乐商业协会案[编辑]

主条目：布朗诉娱乐商业协会案

为解决带有暴力内容的电子游戏的问题，美国多个州一度通过了限制向儿童出售“M”评级电子游戏的法律，尤其是含有暴力或性内容的游戏。电子游戏行业团体在法庭上反对这些法律，并赢得了不少诉讼[51][52]。其中最重要的案件是对2005年加利福尼亚州通过的法律的挑战，该法禁止向未成年人出售“M”评级的游戏，并要求在娱乐软件分级委员会的分级基础上使用更严格的内容分级系统。电子游戏行业团体在地方法庭反对这一法律，并在地方法庭胜诉，但该案随即被带到美国最高法院。在布朗诉娱乐商业协会案中，最高法院裁定电子游戏为传媒形式之一，故而受到美国宪法第一修正案的保护，而像加利福尼亚州这样，以米勒测试之外的依据阻止销售的法律是违宪的[53]。大法官安东宁·斯卡利亚为该案撰写了裁决书的主要观点，他写道电子游戏中的暴力内容和《格林童话》中的暴力内容之间并没有什么区别[54]。

桑迪胡克小学枪击案[编辑]

2012年12月14日，亚当·兰扎在桑迪胡克小学内枪杀26人后自杀。根据调查人员的说法，亚当·兰扎曾购入大量电子游戏，其中包括一些具有暴力元素的电子游戏[55][56]。这一发现在政界和媒体界引起了新一轮反对暴力电子游戏的呼声[57][58]，美国副总统乔·拜登会见了一批电子游戏行业的代表[59]。美国全国步枪协会说电子游戏产业，特别是背景设置在学校内的射击游戏是桑迪胡克小学枪击案的罪魁祸首[60][61]。

2016年慕尼黑枪击案[编辑]

2016年，18岁的戴维·阿里·桑波里在德国巴伐利亚慕尼黑莫萨赫的奥林匹亚购物中心（英语：Olympia-Einkaufszentrum）枪杀9人后自杀。德国联邦内政和国土部部长托马斯·德迈齐埃在事后宣称，“互联网上美化暴力的游戏泛滥成灾，对青少年的成长也产生了有害影响。任何有理智的人都不会否认这一点”[62]。他的发言遭到媒体专家迈克·毛什的批评，毛什说，“没有一个理智的科学家敢如此肯定地说出这样的话。而如果没有科学家敢这么说，也就不应该有政府部长敢这么说”[63]。

玛乔丽·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中枪击案[编辑]

2018年2月14日，19岁的尼古拉斯·克鲁兹进入佛罗里达州帕克兰的玛乔丽·斯通曼·道格拉斯高中枪杀17人，并重伤多人。肯塔基州州长马特·贝文随即呼吁美国应该重新审视“交到青少年手里的东西”[64]，特别是“让人们对人的生命价值变得不敏感”的“被反复提及的电子游戏”[65]。事发一个月后，美国总统唐纳德·特朗普在华盛顿特区会见了一些行业的代表和倡议者，讨论带有暴力内容的电子游戏的影响：出席者包括娱乐软件协会总裁麦克·加拉格尔、娱乐软件分级委员会总裁帕特里夏·万斯、ZeniMax Media首席执行官罗伯特·奥特曼、Take-Two首席执行官斯特劳斯·泽尔尼克、媒体研究中心（英语：Media Research Center）的布伦特·博泽和家长电视委员会（英语：Parents Television Council）的梅丽莎·亨森。会议期间电子游戏行业的代表仍坚称带有暴力内容的电子游戏和暴力行为之间缺乏联系，而批评者也仍坚称电子游戏行业应当限制青少年接触电子游戏，就像应当限制青少年接触酒类或是香烟一样[66]。

苏扎诺市校园枪击案[编辑]

2019年3月13日，吉尔默·蒙泰罗和露易兹·卡斯特罗进入巴西圣保罗州苏扎诺的巴西劳尔教授中学射杀8人，随后自杀。巴西副总统汉密尔顿·莫朗随后表示这起枪击案可能是年轻人沉迷于暴力电子游戏的结果，还声称巴西父母的日常工作使年轻人更难得到正确的教育[67]。巴西的游戏玩家们则在社交媒体上使用#SomosGamersNãoAssassinos（“#我们是玩家不是杀人犯”）表示抗议[68]。

埃尔帕索枪击案及代顿枪击案[编辑]

2019年8月3日，21岁的帕特里克·伍德·克鲁修斯在德克萨斯州埃尔帕索的一家沃尔玛商店枪杀23人，并重伤多人。同日，24岁的康纳·斯蒂芬·贝茨在俄亥俄州代顿的一家酒吧中枪杀9人，重伤多人。这两起事件再度引起了电子游戏导致暴力的说法。唐纳德·特朗普在两场枪击案几日后发表声明：“我们必须停止在我们的社会中颂扬暴力，比如现今常见的一些可怕的、令人毛骨悚然的电子游戏。”[69]众议院少数党领袖凯文·麦卡锡同样认为电子游戏是罪魁祸首，说：“我始终认为，这是关乎我们后代和每个人的问题。我们已经从研究中看到了它对个人的影响，从这些枪击案的照片中可以看到电子游戏和其他游戏中的行为。”[32]新闻机构和电子游戏行业重申了过去的研究结果，即电子游戏和暴力行为之间没有必然联系，并批评政客们在应当进行枪支管制的时候将责任全都推给电子游戏[69][32]。

萨勒河畔哈雷犹太会堂枪击案[编辑]

2019年10月9日，27岁的斯蒂芬·巴利特在德国萨克森-安哈尔特萨勒河畔哈雷的一间犹太会堂附近射杀两人，射伤两人（英语：Halle synagogue shooting），巴利特在作案时通过Facebook和Twitch进行直播，并在直播中发表了极右翼反犹言论[70]。德国内政部长霍斯特·泽霍费尔在事后表示“许多犯罪者或潜在犯罪者来自于游戏圈”[71]，他的言论被德国游戏玩家和政治家所批评德国社会民主党总书记拉尔斯·克林拜尔说：“问题出在右翼极端主义上，而非游戏玩家或者别的什么”[72]。

2020年代[编辑]

托雷翁塞万提斯学院枪击案[编辑]

2020年1月10日，11岁的荷西·安赫尔·拉莫斯·贝茨在墨西哥科阿韦拉州托雷翁的塞万提斯学院枪杀1人，打伤6人后自杀（英语：Colegio Cervantes shooting）。州长米格尔·安赫尔·里克尔梅·索利斯（英语：Miguel Ángel Riquelme Solís）在枪击案后几小时宣布，贝茨在作案时穿着一件印有《物竞天择》模组logo的衬衫，并表示他可能是受游戏影响作案[73]。州长的言论随即引发争议，墨西哥国立自治大学心理学院的埃里克·萨拉萨尔·弗洛雷斯表示，对那些希望忽视问题本身复杂性的当局来说，将暴力归咎于电子游戏是一种“简单的办法”[74]。下加利福尼亚自治大学（英语：Autonomous University of Baja California）的社会学家达利拉·巴伦苏埃拉评论说虽然电子游戏可能会影响青少年的行为，但家长们要负最主要的责任[75]。

纳赫尔·梅尔祖克抗议[编辑]

2023年6月，17岁的北非裔法国人纳赫尔·梅尔祖克在巴黎郊区楠泰尔被一名警察开枪击毙，随后引发大规模的抗议和暴乱。法国总统埃马纽埃尔·马克龙在同月批评电子游戏“毒害”一些青年骚乱者[76]。

研究[编辑]

The policy statement of the American Psychological Association (APA) related to video games states "Scant evidence has emerged that makes any causal or correlational connection between playing violent video games and actually committing violent activities."[69] The APA has acknowledged that violent video games strongly correlates with aggressive behavior, as well as anti-social behavior, but distinguishes between aggression and violence. A 2015 APA review of current studies in this area described the link between violent video games and aggressive behavior as "both as an increase in negative outcomes such as aggressive behavior, cognition, and affect and as a decrease in positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression."[77] However, the APA recognized the studies tended to be disproportionate to normal demographics.[77]

Further, the APA issued a policy statement in 2017 aimed at politicians and media to urge them to avoid linking violent video games with violent crimes, reiterating the subject of their findings over the years.[78] In a follow-up statement in 2020, the APA reaffirmed that there remains insufficient evidence to link video games to violent behavior. They had found that there was "small, reliable association between violent video game use and aggressive outcomes, such as yelling and pushing," but could not extend that to more violent activities.[79]

Christopher Ferguson, a professor at Stetson University and a researcher on the connection between violent video games and violent behavior, has stated that "[t]here's not evidence of a correlation, let alone a causation" between videogames and violence.[80] Ferguson's more recent studies have shown that there is no predictive behavior that can be inferred from the playing of violent video games.[81][82]

A longitudinal study published in Molecular Psychiatry in 2021 found no significant changes in semantic accessibility to aggressive words, frustration tolerance, empathy, or prosocial behavior between those who played a violent video game and those who played a non-violent video game daily for two months.[83] Similarly, a 2023 study published in eLife found that playing violent video games, specifically "Grand Theft Auto V," does not decrease empathy in players. The research used fMRI and behavioral tests to measure empathy and found no significant evidence of reduced empathetic responses or emotional reactions to violence in players.[84]

暴力网络游戏的负面影响[编辑]

Theories of negative effects of video games tend to focus on players' modeling of behaviors observed in the game. These effects may be exacerbated due to the interactive nature of these games. The most well-known theory of such effects is the cognitive neo-association theory (also referred to as Script Theory), which proposes that playing violent video games may create cognitive scripts of aggression which will be activated in incidents in which individuals think others are acting with hostility.[85] Playing violent video games, thus, becomes an opportunity to rehearse acts of aggression, which then become more common in real life. The General Aggression Model, a meta-theoretical framework to understand how various theories work together to explain aggressive behaviors, incorporates various theories suggesting that the simulated violence of video games may influence players' thoughts, feelings and physical arousal, affecting individuals' interpretation of others' behavior and increasing their own aggressive behavior.[86] Some scholars have criticized the general aggression model, arguing that the model wrongly assumes that aggression is primarily learned and that the brain does not distinguish reality from fiction.[87] Some recent studies have explicitly claimed to find evidence against the effect of short-term exposure to violent video games on aggression.[88][89][90]

Parents can protect their children from violence used in video games by limiting game usage and privileges. Some biological theories of aggression have specifically excluded video game and other media effects because the evidence for such effects is considered weak and the impact too distant. For example, the catalyst model of aggression comes from a diathesis-stress perspective, implying that aggression is due to a combination of genetic risk and environmental strain. The catalyst model suggests that stress, coupled with antisocial personality are salient factors leading to aggression. It does allow that proximal influences such as family or peers may alter aggressiveness but not media and games.[91][92]

研究方法[编辑]

Research has focused on two elements of the effects of video games on players: the player's health measures and educational achievements as a function of game play amounts; the players' behavior or perceptions as a function of the game's violence levels;[93] the context of the game play in terms of group dynamics; the game's structure which affects players' visual attention or three dimensional constructional skills; and the mechanics of the game which affects hand–eye coordination.[94] Two other research methods that have been used are experimental (in a laboratory), where the different environmental factors can be controlled, and non-experimental, where those who participate in studies simply log their video gaming hours.[4]

科学界的争论[编辑]

一种常见的理论认为，玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏会增加青少年的攻击性。许多研究声称得到了支持这一假设的结果[4][95][96]，但也有不少研究认为二者之间没有任何关联[97][98]。正反两方面的学者之间仍在激烈争论[99][100]。

初步研究[编辑]

1998年，史蒂文·柯什在学术期刊《童年》中写道，游玩电子游戏会导致敌对归因偏差（英语：hostile attribution bias），他让55名受试者分成两组，分别玩暴力的和非暴力的电子游戏。之后，受试者被要求阅读人物行为模糊的故事，柯什发现被选中玩带有暴力元素电子游戏的受试者更有可能对故事做出负面解释[101]。安德森和迪尔在2000年进行的另一项研究发现，在大学生中，玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏与暴力犯罪之间存在相关性，在激进的男性玩家中，这种相关性更强[102]，但有学者指出这项研究的结果并无一致性，研究方法也有缺陷[103]。

2001年，美国医务总监（英语：Surgeon General of the United States）大卫·撒切尔（英语：David Satcher）说：“我们显然将媒体暴力与攻击性行为联系在了一起。但与其他因素相比，这种影响非常小。有些人可能对此不满意，但这就是科学。”[104]

2002年，美国特勤局对41名校园枪击案的肇事者进行了调查，结果发现，其中有12%的人喜欢玩带有暴力元素的电子游戏，24%的人喜欢阅读暴力书籍，27%的人喜欢看暴力电影[105]。一些学者指出，与一般青少年相比，这些数字异常低[106]。

In 2003, a study was conducted at Iowa State University assessing pre-existing attitudes and violence in children.[107] The study concerned children between ages 5 and 12 that were assessed for the typical amount of time they played video games per week and pre-existing empathy and attitudes towards violence. The children played a violent or non-violent video game for approximately 15 minutes. Afterwards, their pulse rates were recorded, and the children were asked how frustrating the games were on a 1-10 scale. Last, the children are given drawings (vignettes) of everyday situations, some more likely to have aggressive actions following the depiction, while others an empathetic action. Results show that there were no significant effects of video game playing in the short term, with violent video games and non-violent video games having no significant differences, indicating that children do not have decreased empathy from playing violent video games. Conversely, children who play more violent video games over a long period of time were associated with lower pre-existing empathy, and also lower scores on the empathy inducing vignettes, indicating long-term effects. It is possible that video games had not primed children for the particular aggression scenarios. This data could indicate desensitization in children can occur after long-term exposure, but not all children were affected in the same way, so the researchers deduced that some children may be at a higher risk of these negative effects. It is possible that fifteen minutes is not quite long enough to produce short-term cognitive effects.

2003年，托雷多大学心理学系的珍妮·B·丰克等人研究了四五年级学生接触媒体中和现实生活中的暴力，与心理脱敏（具体表现包括丧失同理心、改变对暴力行为的看法）之间的关系。丰克发现接触电子游戏中的暴力内容与移情能力下降及亲暴力态度之间有相关性[108]。

2003年，威斯敏斯特大学的约翰·科尔韦尔进行另一项研究发现玩带有暴力内容的电子游戏与日本青少年攻击性减少有关[109]。

2005年，美国心理学会发表了一份决议书，认为游戏中的暴力内容会增加敌对性、攻击性想法、促使人们怀疑他人、认同使用暴力解决问题；对暴力性的互动电子游戏研究的综合分析表明，游玩会增加攻击性想法、行为、引发愤怒情绪和其他生理波动，并减少助人行为；媒体中的性暴力与对妇女的暴力行为、强奸谬论的接受度和反妇女态度的增长有相关性。该份决议书呼吁减少媒体（特别是针对儿童的节目和游戏）中的暴力内容，呼吁从社会学习、性别歧视、对少数群体的负面描述以及性别的角度研究电子游戏和其他媒体中的暴力行为对儿童和青少年造成的影响，呼吁让游戏的开发商加入进来一同解决电子游戏中的暴力内容会使儿童和青少年产生攻击性行为和认知的问题。该份决议书还建议娱乐业把暴力行为后果的描述与负面社会后果联系起来，并建立能准确反映电子游戏和互动媒体内容的评级系统。

2013年，200多名媒体学者联名质疑美国心理学会的决议书忽视了结果不一致的研究，歪曲了科学文献[110][111]，联名者呼吁重新审视相关研究证据，修订之前的决议，并开展更多的研究。联名者包括心理学家杰弗里·阿内特（英语：Jeffrey Arnett）、兰迪·博勒姆（英语：Randy Borum）、戴维·巴斯、戴维·坎特、洛伦萨·科尔扎托（英语：Lorenza Colzato）、M·布伦特·唐纳兰（英语：M. Brent Donnellan）、多萝西·埃斯佩拉奇（英语：Dorothy Espelage）、弗兰克·S·法利、克里斯托弗·弗格森（英语：Christopher Ferguson (psychologist)）、彼得·格雷、马克·D·格里菲斯（英语：Mark D. Griffiths）、杰西卡·哈默（英语：Jessica Hammer）、伊藤瑞子（英语：Mizuko Ito）、詹姆斯·C·考夫曼（英语：James C. Kaufman）、丹娜·克里萨宁（英语：Dana Klisanin）、凯瑟琳·麦克布赖德-张（英语：Catherine McBride-Chang）、让·默瑟（英语：Jean Mercer）、哈尔·帕什勒（英语：Hal Pashler）、斯蒂芬·平克、理查德·M·瑞安（英语：Richard M. Ryan）、托德·肯尼迪·沙克福（英语：Todd K. Shackelford）、丹尼尔·西蒙斯（英语：Daniel Simons）、伊恩·斯彭斯（英语：Ian Spence (psychologist)）和迪恩·西蒙顿（英语：Dean Simonton），犯罪学家凯文·比弗（英语：Kevin Beaver）、詹姆斯·艾伦·福克斯（英语：James Alan Fox）、罗杰·J·R·莱维斯克（英语：Roger J.R. Levesque）和迈克·A·马尔斯（英语：Mike A. Males），游戏设计研究者鲍勃·德舒特（英语：Bob De Schutter）、库尔特·斯奎尔（英语：Kurt Squire），通讯学者托尔斯滕·夸特（英语：Thorsten Quandt）及科普作家理查德·罗兹[112][113]。

2005年，布鲁斯·D·巴塞洛等联合了密苏里大学、密歇根大学、阿姆斯特丹自由大学和北卡罗来纳大学四所大学的学者，发现电子游戏中的暴力内容与大脑中脱敏相关的事件相关电位有关联。作者认为，长期接触带有暴力元素的电子游戏会对大脑功能和行为产生长期的有害影响[114]。

2005年，尼古拉斯·L·卡纳吉等人在爱荷华州立大学、密歇根大学和阿姆斯特丹自由大学的一项研究发现，曾玩过带有暴力元素的电子游戏的人在观看真实的暴力视频时，心率和皮肤电刺激反应（英语：Electrodermal activity）都较常人偏低，这表明他们对暴力已经生理脱敏[115]。

2007年斯威本科技大学的一项研究发现孩童对带有暴力元素的电子游戏的反应各不相同，一些孩子变得更加具有攻击性，一些孩子变得更温和，大多数孩子并无行为模式上的明显变化[116]。

In 2008, a longitudinal study conducted in Japan assessed possible long-term effects of video game playing in children.[117] The final analysis consisted of 591 fifth graders aged 10–11 across eight public elementary schools, and was conducted over the course of a year. Initially, children were asked to complete a survey which assessed presence or absence of violence in the children's favorite video games, as well as video game context variables that may affect the results and the aggression levels of the children. Children were assessed again for these variables a year later. Results reveal that there is a significant difference in gender, with boys showing significantly more aggressive behavior and anger than girls, which was attributed by the authors to boys elevated interest in violent video games. However the interaction between time spent gaming and preference for violent games was associated with reduced aggression in boys but not girls. The researchers also found that eight context variables they assessed increased aggression, including unjustified violence, availability of weapons, and rewards. Three context variables, role-playing, extent of violence, and humor, were associated with decreased aggression. It is unknown if the observed changes from the two surveys are actually contextual effects. The researchers found that the context and quality of the violence in video games affects children more than simply presence and amount of violence, and these effects are different from child to child.

In 2008 the Pew Internet and American Life Project statistically examined the impact of video gaming on youths' social and communal behaviors. Teens who had communal gaming experiences reported much higher levels of civic and political engagement than teens who had not had these kinds of experiences. Youth who took part in social interaction related to the game, such as commenting on websites or contributing to discussion boards, were more engaged communally and politically. Among teens who play games, 63% reported seeing or hearing "people being mean and overly aggressive while playing," 49% reported seeing or hearing "people being hateful, racist or sexist while playing", and 78% reported witnessing "people being generous or helpful while playing".[118][119]

2009年，一份总结针对新加坡、日本和美国不同年龄段学生三项研究的报告中写道，玩亲社会游戏能增加受试者的有益亲社会行为[120]。

In 2010, Patrick and Charlotte Markey suggested that violent video games only caused aggressive feelings in individuals who had a preexisting disposition, such as high neuroticism, low agreeableness, or low conscientiousness.[121]

In 2010, after a review of the effects of violent video games, the Attorney General's Office of Australia reported that even though the Anderson meta-analysis of 2010 was the pinnacle of the scientific debate at that time, significant harm from violent video games had not been persuasively proven or disproven, except that there was some consensus that they might be harmful to people with aggressive or psychotic personality traits.[122]

The attorney general considered a number of issues including:

  • Social and political controversy about the topic.
  • Lack of consensus about definitions and measures of aggression and violent video games (for example, whether a cartoon game has the same impact as a realistic one).
  • Levels of aggression may or may not be an accurate marker for the likelihood of violent behaviour.
  • The playing of violent video games may not be an independent variable in determining violent acts (for example, violent behaviour after playing violent video games may be age dependant, or players of violent video games may watch other violent media).
  • Studies may not have been long or large enough to provide clear conclusions.[122]

In 2010, researchers Paul Adachi and Teena Willoughby at Brock University critiqued experimental video game studies on both sides of the debate, noting that experimental studies often confounded violent content with other variables such as competitiveness.[123] In a follow up study, the authors found that competitiveness but not violent content was associated with aggression.[124]

In 2011, a thirty-year study of 14,000 college students, published by the University of Michigan which measured overall empathy levels in students, found that these had dropped by 40% since the 1980s. The biggest drop came after the year 2000, which the authors speculated was due to multiple factors, including increased societal emphasis on selfishness, changes in parenting practices, increased isolation due to time spent with information technology, and greater immersion in all forms of violent and/or narcissistic media including, but not limited to, news, television and video games. The authors did not provide data on media effects, but referenced various research of the topics.[125]

In 2011, in a longitudinal study of youth in Germany, von Salisch found that aggressive children tend to select more violent video games. This study found no evidence that violent games caused aggression in minors. The author speculated that other studies may have been affected by "single responder bias" due to self-reporting of aggression rather than reporting by parents or teachers.[126]

2012年，瑞典的一项研究考察了《指环王Online：安格玛之影》中玩家的合作行为。作者认为，将游戏中的合作或攻击行为与现实生活中的行为相联系的基础是游戏与现实中的物质条件相差不大，而这一基础显然站不住脚[127]。

2013年摩根·特尔和马克·尼尔森的一项研究无法复现此前亲社会行为增减的研究[98]。

2013年荷兰拉德堡德大学的伊莎贝拉·格拉尼奇等人认为，即便是带有暴力内容的电子游戏也能促进人们提升学习、健康和社交技能，用于治疗心理健康问题的游戏还不够多。伊莎贝拉·格拉尼奇还认为双方的观点都有一定道理，所以有必要从更平衡的角度和更复杂的情况出发进行分析[128]。

In 2014, Ferguson and Olson found no correlation between video game violence and bullying or delinquency in children with preexisting attention deficit disorder or depressive symptoms.[129]

In 2014, Villanova professor Patrick M. Markey conducted a study with 118 teenagers suggesting that video games have no influence on increased aggression of users; however, he did find that when used for the right amount of time (roughly 1 hour) video games can make children nicer and more socially interactive. This information was provided by the teens teachers at their local schools.[130][来源可靠？]

2014年，牛津大学的安德鲁·普日比尔斯基研究了暴力内容和挫折感对电子游戏玩家敌意的影响。普日比尔斯基等人发现挫败感（而非暴力内容）会增加玩家的敌意。此外，普日比尔斯基等人还发现此前的一些“经典研究”的结果难以复现[131]。

One longitudinal study from 2014 suggested that violent video games were associated with very small increases in risk taking behavior over time.[132]

In 2015, the American Psychological Association released a review that found that violent video games caused aggressive behavior, with Mark Appelbaum, the chair of the task force that conducted the review, saying that "the link between violence in video games and increased aggression in players is one of the most studied and best established in the field." However, Appelbaum also characterized the size of the correlation as "not very big". The same review found insufficient evidence of a link between such video games and crime or delinquency. Critics, including Peter Gray and Christopher Ferguson, expressed concerns about methodological limitations of the review. Ferguson stated that "I think (the task force members) were selected because their opinions were pretty clear going in." At least four of the seven task force members had previously expressed opinions on the topic; critics argued this alone constitutes a conflict of interest, while a task force member defended that "If it were common practice to exclude all scientists after they render one conclusion, the field would be void of qualified experts".[133][134]

2015年的一项研究考察了带有暴力元素的电子游戏对患有自闭症的青年玩家的影响。研究发现，找不到证据表明玩这类游戏会影响自闭症玩家的攻击性。这一结果与2012年桑迪胡克枪击案后的担忧相矛盾，当时人们认为带有暴力元素的电子游戏对自闭症患者和其他精神病患者有更大的影响[135]。

2016年的一项研究表明，“性别歧视”类的游戏（作者以侠盗猎车手系列游戏为例）可能会降低对女性的共情能力。虽然作者没有发现任何证据表明游戏会直接造成影响，但作者认为，游戏设定的条件、游戏中的男性角色规范、性别和游戏角色认同之间的交互作用产生了足够的证据，因此可以认为二者之间有关系。其他学者对这项研究表达了对研究方法的一些担忧，比如游戏条件的随机化可能不足以支撑结论（见评论部分）[136]。

In 2016, a preregistered study of violent video game effects concluded that violent video games did not influence aggression in players.[90] The preregistered nature of the study removed the potential for the scholars to "nudge" the results of the study in favor of the hypothesis and suggests that preregistration of future studies may help clarify results in the field.

元分析[编辑]

由于不同研究往往会得出南辕北辙的结论，故学术争论往往会转向元分析——一种整合各项研究，解释不同研究结果之间差异的分析方法。

目前学界已进行了多项元分析的研究，但仍会得到不同的结论。一项2001年的元分析回顾了电子游戏中的暴力内容与3033名青少年攻击行为之间的关系，发现两者之间存在显著的正相关关系，得出结论电子游戏中的暴力内容确实会导致青少年攻击行为的增加[4]。同年，约翰·谢里进行的另一项元分析研究对电子游戏中暴力内容的效果持怀疑态度，谢里特别研究了电子游戏中的互动，认为电子游戏不会因此产生更大的影响[5]。谢里后来在2007年发表了另一份元分析研究，再次得到认为电子游戏中的暴力内容对攻击行为的影响微乎其微的结论。谢里还引用他观察到的剂量-反应曲线进行了反驳，他报告说人们会期望青少年接触电子游戏时间越长越有攻击性，然而剂量-反应曲线表明接触电子游戏时间越长攻击性反而越低[137]。

In 2010, Anderson's group published a meta-analysis of one hundred and thirty international studies with over 130,000 participants. He reported that exposure to violent video games caused both short-term and long-term aggression in players and decreased empathy and pro-social behavior.[138] However, other scholars criticized this meta-analysis for excluding non-significant studies and for other methodological flaws.[139][140][141] Anderson's group have defended their analysis, rejecting these critiques.[142] Rowell Huesmann, a psychology and social studies academic at the University of Michigan wrote an editorial supporting the Anderson meta-analysis.[143] A later re-analysis of the Anderson meta-analysis suggested that there was greater publication bias among experiments than Anderson and colleagues had accounted for. This indicated that the effects observed in laboratory experiments may have been smaller than estimated and perhaps not statistically significant.[144] A reply by Anderson and colleagues acknowledged that there was publication bias among experiments, but disagreed that the degree of bias was large enough to bring the effect into question.[145]

A 2015 meta-analysis of video game effects suggested that video games, including violent games, had minimal impact on children's behavior including violence, prosocial behavior and mental health.[146] The journal included a debate section on this meta-analysis including scholars who were both supportive[147] and critical[148][149] of this meta-analysis. The original author also responded to these comments, arguing that few coherent methodological critiques had been raised.[150] In 2016, Kanamori and Doi replicated the original Angry Birds meta-analysis and concluded that critiques of the original meta were largely unwarranted.[151]

In 2018, a meta-analysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time found that "violent video game play is positively associated with aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect, as well as negatively associated with empathy for victims of violence and with prosocial behavior".[152]

A 2020 meta-analysis of long-term outcome studies concluded that evidence did not support links between earlier playing of violent games and later aggression. The authors found an overall correlation of r = 0.059, and stated that better quality studies were less likely to find evidence for effects than poorer quality studies.[153][154]

使用功能性磁共振成像进行的研究[编辑]

电子游戏对大脑的长期影响程度也存在一定争议，学者们就此使用功能性磁共振成像进行了一些研究。一些研究表明，电子游戏玩家的杏仁核功能增强，而额叶功能减弱[155]。一些学者由此认为电子游戏对额叶的影响可能类似于侵扰行为障碍症（英语：disruptive behavior disorders）中出现的失活现象[156][157]。此外，这方面的一些研究被指存在利益冲突。布朗诉娱乐商业协会案中的一些人指出克罗嫩伯格所做的研究是由“成功父母中心”公开资助的，故可能意味着存在利益冲突[158]。

后来的其他研究无法找到含暴力元素的游戏与大脑功能减退之间存在联系的证据。例如，里根柏格等人进行的一项功能性磁共振成像研究发现，含暴力内容的电子游戏与区分真实和虚拟暴力的能力下降之间没有联系[159]。另一项2016年使用功能性磁共振成像进行的研究没有发现证据表明暴力电子游戏会导致玩家产生脱敏效应[160]。西蒙娜·库恩博士在接受BBC采访时解释说，先前的功能性磁共振成像研究中看到的大脑效应很可能表明，玩家只是能够区分现实和虚构，并相应地调节自己的情绪反应，而不是会发生心理上的脱敏[161]。

对犯罪影响的研究[编辑]

In 2008, records held by the US Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and Office of Justice Programs indicated that arrests for violent crime in the US had decreased since the early 1990s in both children and adults.[162][163][164] This decrease occurred contemporaneously with increasing sales of violent video games and increases in graphically violent content in those games.[165][166]

Studies of violent video game playing and crime have generally not supported the existence of causal links. Evidence from studies of juveniles[167][168][169] as well as criminal offenders[170] has generally not uncovered evidence for links. Some studies have suggested that violent video game playing may be associated with reductions in some types of aggression, such as bullying.[171]

Studies of mass shootings have, likewise, provided no evidence for links with violent video games. A 2002 report from the US Secret Service found that school shooters appeared to consume relatively low levels of violent media.[172] Some criminologists have referred to claims linking violent video games to mass shootings as a "myth".[173]

Some studies have examined the consumption of violent video games in society and violent crime rates. Generally, it is acknowledged that societal violent video game consumption has been associated with over an 80% reduction in youth violence in the US during the corresponding period.[174] However, scholars note that, while this data is problematic for arguments that violent video games increase crime, such data is correlational and cannot be used to conclude video games have caused this decline in crime.[175]

Other studies have examined data on violent video games and crime trends more closely and have come to the conclusion that the release of very popular violent video games are causally associated with corresponding declines in violent crime in the short term. A 2011 study by the Center for European Economic Research[176] found that violent video games may be reducing crime. This is possibly because the time spent playing games reduces time spent engaged in more antisocial activities. Other recent studies by Patrick Markey[177] and Scott Cunningham[178] have come to similar conclusions.

美国的公众辩论[编辑]

Jack Thompson, an activist, filed lawsuits against the makers of violent games, alleging that simulated violence causes real-world violence.

In the early 1980s, Ronnie Lamm, the president of the Long Island PTA sought legislation to govern the proximity of video game arcades to schools.[179] In the 1990s, Joe Lieberman, a US Senator, chaired a hearing about violent video games such as Mortal Kombat.[180] David Grossman, a former West Point psychology lecturer and lieutenant colonel, wrote books about violence in the media including: On Killing (1996) and Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill (1999).[181] He described first-person shooter games as murder simulators, and argued that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and harden them emotionally towards commitments of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.[182]

In 2003, Craig A. Anderson, a researcher who testified on the topic before the U.S. Senate, said,

"[S]ome studies have yielded nonsignificant video game effects, just as some smoking studies failed to find a significant link to lung cancer. But when one combines all relevant empirical studies using meta-analytic techniques, it shows that violent video games are significantly associated with: increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased pro-social (helping) behavior."[183][184][185][186]

In 2005, Anderson was criticized in court for failing to give balanced expert evidence.[187]

In 2008, in Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth About Violent Video Games and What Parents Can Do, Kutner and Olsen refuted claims that violent video games cause an increase in violent behavior in children. They report there is a scientifically non-significant trend showing that adolescents who do not play video games at all are most at risk for violent behavior and video game play is part of an adolescent boy's normal social setting. However, the authors did not completely deny the negative influences of violent (M-rated) video games on pre-teens and teenagers: Kutner and Olson suggested the views of alarmists and those of representatives of the video game industry are often supported by flawed or misconstrued studies and that the factors leading to violence in children and adolescents were more subtle than whether or not they played violent video games.[188][189]

Henry Jenkins, an academic in media studies, said,

"According to federal crime statistics, the rate of juvenile violent crime in the United States is at a 30-year low. Researchers find that people serving time for violent crimes typically consume less media before committing their crimes than the average person in the general population. It's true that young offenders who have committed school shootings in America have also been game players. But young people in general are more likely to be gamers—90 percent of boys and 40 percent of girls play. The overwhelming majority of kids who play do not commit antisocial acts. According to a 2001 U.S. Surgeon General's report, the strongest risk factors for school shootings centered on mental stability and the quality of home life, not media exposure. The moral panic over violent video games is doubly harmful. It has led adult authorities to be more suspicious and hostile to many kids who already feel cut off from the system. It also misdirects energy away from eliminating the actual causes of youth violence and allows problems to continue to fester."[190]

In 2013, Corey Mead, a professor of English at Baruch College, wrote about how the U.S. military financed the original development of video games, and has long used them for both training, recruitment purposes, and treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. He also argues that the two industries are currently intertwined into each other in a "military-entertainment complex".[191] Writing in 2013, scholars James Ivory and Malte Elson noted that, although research on video game effects remained inconclusive, the culture of the academic field itself had become very contentious and that politicians had put pressure on scientists to produce specific research findings. The authors concluded it is improper for scholars or legislators to, at present, portray video games as a public health crisis.[113] Research by Oxford psychologist Andrew Przybylski has shown that Americans are split in opinion on how video game violence links to gun violence. Przybylski found that older people, women rather than men, people who knew less about games and who were very conservative in ideology were most likely to think video games could cause gun violence.[192]

Several groups address video game violence as a topic that they focus on. Groups such as Parents Against Violence, Parents Against Media Violence and One Million Moms take stances aimed at limiting the violence in video games and other media.[193][194][195]

Video games, particularly violent ones, are often mentioned as a cause for major gun crimes in the wake of school shooting by young adults. For example, Adam Lanza, the 20-year-old shooter at the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, was found to have numerous video games in his possession, leading for some people to blame video games for the shooting;[196] however, the State Attorney did not link video game to the event in their final report of the incident, though identified that video game addiction may have been connected.[197][198] In February 2018, following the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, President Donald Trump, among others, said "the level of violence on video games is really shaping young people's thoughts".[199] Rhode Island state representative Robert Nardolillo also proposed legislation to tax violent video games (those rated "Mature" or higher by the ESRB) to use funds for supporting mental health programs in the state.[200]

Following the Stoneman Douglas shooting event, President Trump arranged to meet with several video game industry professionals on March 8, 2018; in attendance beyond Trump and other Congressmen included Mike Gallagher, the president and CEO of the ESA; Pat Vance, the president of the ESRB; Strauss Zelnick, CEO of Take Two Interactive, Robert Altman, CEO of ZeniMax Media; Brent Bozell, founder of the Media Research Center; and Melissa Hanson, program manager for the Parents Television Council. The meeting was not designed to come to a solution but only for the invited parties to present their stance on video games and their relationship to violent activity as to try to determine appropriate steps in the future.[201] At the start of the meeting, the President showed the attendees a short 88-second video of numerous violent video game segments put together by his staff, including the infamous "No Russian" level from Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, which featured the player watching and potentially participating in a massacre of civilians in an airport.[202]

The White House later released the video to YouTube, where it quickly became popular due to the controversy over the relationship between video games and real-life violence; despite being unlisted shortly after being uploaded, it has reached about 1.6 million views as of 2023.[203][204] The video is still accessible via URL, and media outlets like IGN included links to the original in their responses to the matter.[205] Games for Change made a short response video with 550.000 views titled "#GameOn".[206]

国家因素[编辑]

澳大利亚[编辑]

Video games are rated in Australia by the Australian Classification Board (ACB), run out of the federal Attorney-General's Department. ACB also oversees ratings on films and applies the same ratings system as to video games. Broadly, the ratings system is based on a number of factors including violence. The ACB can refuse to classify a film or game if they felt the content was beyond allowable guidelines for the strictest ratings. Titles refused classification by ACB are thus illegal to sell within Australia and assess fines for those that attempted to import such games, while allowing titles with more mature ratings to be sold under regulated practices. Prior to 2011, video games could only qualify up to a "MA15+" rating, and not the next highest tier of "R18+" which were allowed for film. Several high-profile games thus were banned in Australia. The ACB agreed to allow video games to have R18+ ratings in 2011, and some of these games that were previously banned were subsequently allowed under R18+.

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Ferguson, C. J., & Olson, C. K. (2014). Video Game Violence Use Among “Vulnerable” Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying Among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(1), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5 Lee, E.-J., Kim, H. S., & Choi, S. (2021). Violent Video Games and Aggression: Stimulation or Catharsis or Both? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0033

外部链接[编辑]


Category:电子游戏 Category:电子游戏争议 Category:Moral panic

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